METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MEASURING IN SITU DENSITY AND FABRIC OF SOILS

METHODE ET DISPOSITIF POUR L'EVALUATION SUR PLACE DE LA COMPOSITION ET DE LA DENSITE DES SOLS

English Abstract

METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MEASURING IN
SITU DENSITY AND FABRIC OF SOILS
Abstract of the Disclosure
A method and implementing apparatus for measuring
in situ the electrical capacitance and resistance of soils
and determining therefrom the density and fabric thereof.
The apparatus includes a self-contained probe adapted to be
driven into the soil to be measured. The probe has a soil
sensor element and a measuring circuit such as a capacitance
and resistance bridge. The measuring circuit employs radio-
frequency current to enable direct measurement at the probe of
the resistance and capacitance of the soil sample and of the
pore liquid. A remote indicator and control unit in communi-
cation with the probe is provided with indicators such as
meters or displays which provide direct readout of measured
resistance and capacitance, and which may also enable the
bridge in the probe to become balanced. Alternatively, the
probe may include a computer for automatically balancing the
bridge and calculating critical soil properties. The apparatus
can automatically register such engineering properties as density,
porosity, friction angle, elastic and secant modulus, coefficient
of dynamic settlement, stress ratio required to cause lique-
faction, and permeability coefficient. The probe and measuring
equipment can, alternatively, be manually balanced and the
engineering properties and related properties can be hand
calculated. The concept outlined and apparatus can be extended
or modified for a wide variety of other uses also.

Claims

THE EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION IN WHICH AN EXCLUSIVE
PROPERTY OR PRIVILEGE IS CLAIMED ARE DEFINED AS FOLLOWS:
1. Apparatus for measuring in situ the resistance
and capacitance at radio frequency of soils, including sands and
silts, to enable evaluation of the density and fabric thereof,
comprising:
probe means adapted to be driven into the soil to be
measured in situ to a fixed depth so that said probe means comes
into physical proximity and electrical contact with a sample of
said soil to be evaluated, said probe means having
a first pair of electrodes for measuring in situ the
electrical resistance and capacitance of said soil sample
along a horizontal direction,
a second pair of electrodes for measuring in situ
the electrical resistance and capacitance along a vertical
direction,
a pore-liquid chamber in said probe means having an
inlet and means for relieving gas,
a third pair of electrodes in said pore liquid for
measuring in situ the electrical resistance and capacitance
of pore liquid in said chamber,
filter means at the inlet to said probe means for
admitting pore liquid to said chamber and excluding the soil
therefrom.
means for applying radio-frequency voltage to each said
pair of electrodes,
resistance measurement indicator means in communication
with said probe means for indicating said measured resistance
of said soil sample along said horizontal direction and along the
vertical direction and for indicating the measured resistance of
said pore liquid, and
capacitance measurement indicator means connected to
said probe means for indicating said measured capacitance of
- 51 -

said soil sample along the horizontal direction and along the
vertical direction and for indicating the measured capacitance
of said pore liquid.
2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said probe
means includes,
a radio-frequency bridge adapted for simultaneous in
situ measurement of capacitance and resistance of said soil
sample, and
balancing means for balancing said bridge while it
is in place in situ for making said measurements.
3. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said bridge is
a radio frequency capacitance bridge.
4. The apparatus of claim 1 having temperature
sensing means in said probe means and indicator means in commu-
nication therewith for indicating the sensed temperature.
- 52 -

5. Apparatus for simultaneous measurement in situ
of the resistance and capacitance of soils, sands, silts, and
the like to enable evaluation of density and fabric thereof,
said apparatus comprising probe head means, measurement point
means, and interconnection means for electrically intercon-
necting said probe head means with said measurement point means,
said probe head means being adapted to be driven
into the soil to be tested to a fixed depth, and including:
a sensor element of plural electrodes for
physically engaging a soil sample of the soil to be tested
at said fixed depth,
an oscillator outputting a signal at a predetermined
radio frequency,
an impedance bridge including:
a first coil having a primary winding connected
to said oscillator and a center tapped secondary winding with
one end thereof connected to one of the electrodes of said
sensor element,
a second coil having a center tapped primary winding
with the center tap thereof connected to the center tap of the
secondary winding of said first coil, and with one of the ends
of said center tapped primary winding being connected to another
of the electrodes of said sensor element, said second coil having
a secondary winding providing an output of said probe head means,
a variable resistance element of adjustable value
connected between the other end of said first coil and the other
end of said second coil,
a variable capacitance element of adjustable value
connected between the other end of said first coil and the other
end of said second coil,
- 53 -

said measurement point means being remote from said
probe head means, and including:
signal converting means connected through said inter-
connection means to said secondary winding of said second coil,
for converting said radio frequency signal into a rectified
and amplified signal proportional in magnitude to said radio
frequency signal,
filter means connected to said converter means for
smoothing said rectified signal into d.c. voltages,
analog to digital converter means connected to
said filter means for converting said d.c. voltages into
digital values,
digital computer means connected to said analog
to digital converter means for automatically repeatedly
determining from said digital values changes of value of said
variable resistance element and said variable capacitance element
to provide a null point in said bridge, and providing a digital
output change signal,
said probe head means further including:
output decoder means -connected through said inter-
connection means to said digital computer means for decoding
said digital output change signal,
resistance switching means in said variable resistance
element connected to said output decoder means, for increasing
and decreasing the resistance of said variable resistance element
in accordance with said decoded change signal, and
capacitance switching means in said variable capacitance
element connected to said variable capacitance element connected
to said output decoder means for increasing and decreasing the
capacitance of said variable capacitance element in accordance
with said decoded change signal,
- 54 -

said measurement point means further including:
resistance indicator means connected to said digital
computer means for indicating soil sample resistance in accordance
with the status of said variable resistance element at null point
of said bridge,
capacitance indicator means connected to said
digital computer means for indicating soil sample capacitance
in accordance with the status of said variable capacitance
element at null point of said bridge,
whereby when said probe head means is driven into
the soil to be tested and said sensor element comes into
physical proximity and electrical contact with a sample of said
soil at said fixed depth, and said bridge is then automatically
nulled by operation of said computer, resistance and capacitance
of said soil sample may thereupon be measured in situ and be
read remotely therefrom, thereby enabling evaluation of density
and fabric of said soil.
6. The apparatus of claim 5 wherein said plural
electrodes comprise one pair of electrodes disposed in horizontal
relation to each other and a pair of electrodes disposed in
vertical relation to each other, and switching means for placing
one said pair at a time in the operation mode, whereby both
resistance and capacitance of said soil are determined in both
a horizontal direction and in a vertical direction.
- 55 -

7. The apparatus of claim 5 wherein said probe
means includes pore-liquid sensor means for measuring in situ
resistance and capacitance of a pore-liquid sample collected
at said pore-fluid sensor, said pore-liquid sensor means
comprises filter means for passing pore liquid and blocking
particulate material and structure defining a chamber having
an opening communicating with said filter means, and pore-liquid
electrode means in said chamber for contacting said pore liquid
collected therein, and therby enabling measurement by said probe
means of resistance and capacitance of said pore-fluid sample,
said probe means including switch means for switching between
said soil sample measuring plural electrodes and said pore-liquid
electrode means.
8. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein said structure
includes vent means for venting gas in said chamber to the
outside of said probe means, as said pore fluid sample enters
said chamber.
9. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein said structure
includes an expandable enclosure connected to said chamber and
into which gas may pass from said chamber.
10. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein said filter means
comprises porous stone material.
11. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein said filter means
comprises cotton padding.
- 56 -

12. The apparatus of claim 5 wherein said probe means
includes temperature sensor means for measuring in situ the
temperature of said soil sample and means connecting said
sensor means to said computer.
57

13. A method of evaluating in situ mechanical
properties of soils, including sands and silts, from
certain electrical properties thereof, comprising
forcing into said soil two pairs of spaced-
apart electrodes, so that some of the in situ soil to
be measured lies between said electrodes, one said pair
of electrodes being disposed horizontally and the other
being disposed vertically in said soil,
sending a radio-frequency current across said
electrodes,
measuring at said radio frequency the electrical
resistance and capacitance of the soil across each said
pair of said electrodes to obtain the horizontal resistance,
vertical resistance, horizontal capacitance and vertical
capacitance of said soil in situ,
filtering in situ pore liquid from said soil at
a locus adjacent said electrodes to obtain a soil-free
pore-liquid sample at that locus,
sending said radio-frequency current through
said pore liquid,
measuring at said radio frequency the electrical
resistance of said soil-free pore liquid, and
calculating from said in situ obtained resistances
and capacitances the desired mechanical properties.
58

14. A method of evaluating in situ mechanical
properties of soils, including sands and silts, from certain
electrical properties thereof, comprising
forcing into said soil two pairs of spaced-apart
vertically extending electrodes, so that some of the in situ
soil to be measured lies between said electrodes, one said
pair of electrodes being disposed horizontally and the other
being disposed vertically in said soil,
sending a radio-frequency current across said
electrodes and through the soil in between them,
measuring at said radio frequency the electrical
resistance and capacitance of the soil across both said pairs
of said electrodes to obtain the horizontal resistance,
vertical resistance, horizontal capacitance and vertical
capacitance of said soil in situ,
filtering in situ pore liquid from said soil at a
locus near said electrodes to obtain a soil-free pore-liquid
sample at that locus,
sending said radio-frequency current through said
soil-free pore liquid,
measuring at said radio frequency the electrical
resistance of said soil-free pore liquid, and
calculating from said in situ obtained resistances
and capacitances the density, friction angle, and structural
index of said soil.
59

15. A method of evaluating in situ certain
mechanical properties of a selected wet soil, comprising the
steps of:
inserting to a predetermined depth into the soil
to be tested a probe having spaced-apart soil-sensing electrodes
and having a pore-liquid chamber with a soil-filtering inlet
thereinto and spaced-apart liquid-sensing electrodes therein,
driving said soil-sensing electrodes into said
soil to be evaluated so that some of the soil lies in between
said soil-sensing electrodes,
filling said pore-liquid chamber with filtered
pore liquid obtained from said soil near said electrodes,
measuring both the resistance and the capacitance
of the wet soil in between said soil-sensing electrodes,
converting the measured resistance and capacitance
of said in-situ soil into the conductivity and the dielectric
constant E' therefor,
measuring the conductivity and the dielectric
constant Es of the pore liquid in said chamber,
determining the dielectric constant Er of the dry
soil particles,
determining the dielectric constant Es of the pore
liquid,
determining the formation factor F of the wet soil
in accordance with the formula:
<IMG> , and
then
determining the soil porosity n from the formula:

<IMG>
16. The method of claim 15 including the step of
calculating the in situ density n by the formula:
<IMG>
17. The method of claim 16 including the step of
calculating a factor X related to the shape of the said
particles, using the formula:
<IMG>
18. The method of claim 17 including the step of
calculating the friction angle ? of the soil from the formula:
? = 13.33 FX - 10.33.
19. The method of claim 15 including the step of
calculating the relative density in the field, Dr as from the
formula:
<IMG>
20. The method of claim 15 wherein a coefficient
of anisotropy A is obtained by
determining the conductivity of the soil between
said sensing electrodes along an horizontal plane,
61

determining therefrom a value FH,
determining the conductivity of the soil between
soil-sensing electrodes along a vertical plane,
determining therefrom a value FV and then
calculating
<IMG>
21. The method of claim 20 including the step of
calculating the relative density Dr from the
formula:
<IMG> , and
then calculating a structural index <IMG> from the formula:
<IMG>
22. A method of evaluating in situ certain
mechanical properties of a selected wet soil, of which the
dielectric constant Er of the dry soil particles and the
dielectric constant Es of the pore liquid thereof are known,
comprising the steps of:
emplacing into said selected soil, in situ, spaced-
apart soil-sensing electrodes, so that some of said soil lies
in between said soil-sensing electrodes,
emplacing into said selected soil, in situ and
near said electrodes, a pore-liquid chamber having a soil-
filtering inlet thereinto and having spaced-apart liquid-
sensing electrodes therein,
62

filling said pore-liquid chamber with filtered
pore liquid so that pore liquid lies in between said liquid-
sensing electrodes,
sending radio-frequency current across the soil-
sensing electrodes,
measuring both the resistance and the capacitance
of the wet soil in between said soil-sensing electrodes,
converting the measured resistance and capacitance
of said in situ wet soil into the conductivity and the
dielectric constant E' therefor,
sending radio-frequency current across the liquid-
sensing electrodes,
measuring the resistance of the pore liquid in said
chamber,
converting the measured resistance of the pore
liquid into the conductivity thereof,
determining the formation factor F of the wet soil
in accordance with the formula:
<IMG> , and
then
determining the soil's porosity n from the formula:
<IMG>
23. The method of claim 22 wherein the frequency of
the radio-frequency current is about one megaHertz.
63

24. The method of claim 22 including the step of
calculating in situ said density n by the formula:
<IMG>
25. The method of claim 24 including the step of
calculating a factor X related to the shape of the said
particles using the formula:
<IMG>
26. The method of claim 25 including the step of
calculating the friction angle ? of the soil from the formula:
? = 13.33 FX - 10.33
27. The method of claim 22 including the step of
determining the relative density in the field, Dr from the
formula:
<IMG>
28. The method of claim 22 wherein a coefficient
of anisotrophy A is obtained by
determining the conductivity of the soil between
soil-sensing electrodes along an horizontal plane,
determining therefrom a value FH,
determining the conductivity of the soil between
soil-sensing electrodes along a vertical plane,
64

determining therefrom a value FV and then
calculating
<IMG>
29. The method of claim 28 including the step of
calculating the relative density Dr from the
formula:
, and
then calculating a structural index <IMG> from
the formula:
<IMG>
30. The method of claim 22 wherein there is the
step of determining the degree of saturation of the in situ
soil by
determining F for a withdrawn sample of soil that
has been 100% saturated with said pore liquid,
determining the actual F for the in situ soil, and
comparing the in situ soil F with the saturated
soil F on a logarithm basis.

Description

Bac~ground of the Invention
The present invention relates to method and apparatus
for determining _ situ the density and fabric or structure of
soils, sands, silts, and other materials. More particularly,
the present invention provides a method and implementing appara-
tus for measuring _ situ the electrical capacitance and resist-
ance of soil samples at a predetermined depth and determining
therefrom the density and fabric or structure of the soil.
Other uses are also indicated.
A knowledge of the _ s-itu density and structure of
sands, loams, and silts is necessary for the accurate prediction
of the settlement and liquefaction potentials of these soils.
A recognition of the danger of these soils behaving as a liquid
in earhtquakes has brought about a practical requirement that
the liquefaction potential of all natural deposits and fills of
soils be evaluated for all construction projects.
It has been generally understood that the behavior of
granular media, such as soils, sands, loam, silt, and other
material, depends mainly on overall structure rather than the
properties of each individual grain. With sands, for example,
:~ .
. . ~

::~$~
1 an average size range of the grains may be determined; whereupon
2 the term "struc~ure" (sometimes called "fabric") is related to
3 three basic features: the shape of the solid particles, the
4 spatial arrzngement of the solid particles, and t:he associated
voids. While it has been recognized that these three basic
6 features must be taken into account in any index used to quantify
7 sand structure, the practical results have not been satisfactory.
9 Porosity alone, for example, is known to be inadequate.
Relative density has proven a better index than porosity, but
11 has dual drawbacks found (1) in difficulty of evaluating its
12 value accurately and (2) in variation of properties resulting
13 from different methods of preparation of sand samples.
14
A common disadvantage shared by the indices of, e.g.,
16 porosity and relative density is that they are scalar quantities
17 not associated with any particular direction in the sample.
18 Hence, they cannot possibly account for the anisotropic character
19 of the sand mass resulting from the shapes and spatial arrange-
ments of the solid particles.
21
22 ~lectrical methods have been used in the past to
23 determine the density of sands. H. Camberfort, in his paper
24 entitled "In Situ Measurement of the Porosity of Sand,"
published in the Proceedings of the 4th International Conference
26 on Soil Mechanics, London, 1957, at pages 213-215, sets forth
27 an empirical equation which related the void ratio (e) of sand
28 to the resistivity of the sand-solution mixture (P), and the
2g resistivity of the pore fluid (P~), that is, the fluid in the
interstices or pores of the soil. That empirical equation was:
-- 2 --
,
, : . .
- ~ -- .

e = ~7rPl-561
3 where P/P0 was defined as the "Formation Factor", F.
4 According to Camberfort's equation (Equation 1), the Formation
Factor (F) was only a function of the void ratio or density
6 of sands.
8 It has also been shown by Fraser and Ward in their
9 paper, "Electrical Pore Space Geometry of Porous Media,"
Report No. MT-63-8, July 1963, Institute of Engineering Research,
11 Berkeley, California, that: :
12 2
~3 F = n (2)
' 1~ '' ! 15 where n is the porosity and t is the tortuosity coefficient,
16 defined as the ratio of the electrolyte path over the straight
~ 17 path along the direction of the measurement. In other words,
`. 18 the tortuosity coefficient (t) was shown to be a measure of
19 the contortion of the path of ionic conduction due to the
sand structure. Thus, the tortuosity coefficient will differ
~: 21 according to the shapes of the solid particles and the angle
~2 of the direction of measurement relative to the spatial
23 arrangement of the solid particles.
24
.
G. Y. Chernyak, in his 1967 paper entitled "Di21ect~ic
.` ~6 Methods for Investigating Moist Soils," (translated from the
-~` 27 Russian by N. Kaner, U. S. Department of Commerce, TT67-51258)
` ~ 28 empirically related the porosity (n) of sands to the dielectric
29 constant (E') of the sand-solution mixture, the dielectric
constant (Er) of the sand particles, and the dielectric
~ 31 constant (Es) of the pore fluid, in the.equation:
.. - 3 -
.,

1 Er _ E ~2E+ (~(3n-1) Es]
3 Mulilis, Seed~ Chan, Mitchell, and the present inventor,
4 in their paper entitled "Effect of Method of Sample Preparation",
published in the Journal of the Geo-l'echnical Engineering Division,
6 American Soc7 ety of Civil Engineers, in February 1977, demonstrated
7 that the fabric of sand was dictated by the method of sample
8 preparation. Therein, soil fabric was determined by a microscopic
9 study of thin sections obtained from a resin-impregnated sample
of sand.
12
13 Summary of the Present Invention
14 It has been determined that the dielectric constant
E' and formation factor F are dependent upon both the porosity
16 and fabric of sand, silt, and loam. This dependency is formally
17 expressed as a diminution coefficient (d). The diminution
18 coefficient (d) is defined as the ratio of current path cross-
I9 sectional area to the sample cross-sectional area, and it
characterizes the pore structure of fabric of the soil being
~1 measured. The diminution coefficient (d) is related-to the
22 porosity (n) and formation factor (F) by the expression:
23
24 d = ~ (4
26 The dièlectric constant (E') of the sand, silt, or
27 loam solution mixture is related to the dielectric constant
28 (Er) of the-sand particles, thP porosity (n~, and the formation
~g factor (F) in accordance with the -following formula:
~ _

E,' = ~ (Es - ~r) + Er (5)
3 From this, follGws: - -
6 D F (E6 - Er) (6)
7 The dielectric constants of soil particles (Er) and
8 pore fluid (Es) are easily measurable quantities, or may be
g ob~ained from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, for
exa~ple. Therefore, physical measurement of the dielectric
11 constant (E') of the soil solution mixture can be readily
12 accomplished by measurement of the capacitance of a soil-solution
13 mixture.
14
lS It has also been determined that the formation factor
16 ~F) at a given porosity will be different al-ong different lines
17 of measurement. Thus, the anisotropy (physical properties along
-18 linPs of different directions) of the soil structure can be ~`
19 determined by measuring the formation factor tF) in different
relative directions.
21~
22 `Thus, one method of the present invention includes
23 ~ the steps of (l) driving a probe having sensory elements into
~24 the soil to be tested to a fixed depth, so that the probe
25: elements contact a sample of the soil to be evaluated,
26~ (2) balancing a bridge provided near the probe to obtain
resistance and capacitance measurements for the soil sample;
2~ (3) converting the measured soil resistan~e and capacitance
into the conductivity and dielectric constant values-therefor,
3~ and ~4) making similar measurements of the pore fluid from
-- 5 --

1 the soil at the fixed depth using the same probe. From the
2 foregoing measurements of conductivity and dielectric constant
3 of the soil sample, and the conductivity of the pore fluid,
4 the formation factor (F) and porosity ~n) may then be calculated,
and from these parameters the engineering properties of the
6 soil may then be determined.
8 The apparatus of the present invention includes a
g self-contained probe for being driven into the soil that is
to be measured in situ. The probe includes a soil sensor element
11 and a pore-fluid sensitive elements and a measuring circuit,
12 such as a bridge, for enabling measurement at the probe of the
3 electrical resistance and capacitance of the soil sample, and,
4 then after throwing a switch, the same characteristics of the
lS pore-fluid. One.form of probe enables measurement of soil
l& sample resistance and capacitance in at least two relative
17 dimensions. A remote indicator and control unit in communi-
18 cation with the probe is provided with indicators, such as meters
19 or displays, which provide direct readout of measured resistance
and capacitance. The device may be balanced by hand or it may
21 include a computer which automatically balances the bridge, or
22 it may include remotely controlled adjusting devices to
23 effectuate bridge balance.
24
The method and a~paratus are applicable to the
26 study of soil behavior and other geo-techniques undersea
27 as well as on so-called dry land.
28
~9
,.
` - 6 -
. ' ' .' ' ~ :' - , : .

Continuous monitoring of soil behavior becomes practi-
cal, either in the natural state or during and after earthquakes
and other dynamic loading conditions. Continuous monitoring of
said settlement is also possible.
The invention can be used in the study of sediment
deposition in estuaries. The study of the deposition and trans-
port of solids in rivers and other bodies of water and the
monitoring thereof can be achieved with the aid of this
invention.
The method and apparatus are also applicable to any
system which requires a knowledge of the structure and relative
amounts of fluid and solid contents in the system, including
processes in the food industry: for example, the fluid content,
viscosity, and structure of fruits or vegetables such as
tomatoes or ketchup; or the fluid content of dough and other
such products.
Thus, in accordance with one broad aspect of the
invention, there is provided apparatus for measuring in situ the
resistance and capacitance at radio frequency of soils, includ-
ing sands and silts, to enable evaluation of the density andfabric thereof, comprising: probe means adapted to be driven
into the soil to be measured in situ to a fixed depth so that
said probe means comes into physical proximity and electrical
contact with a sample of said soil to be evaluated, said probe
means having a first pair of electrodes for measuring in situ
the electrical resistance and capacitance of said soil sample
along a horizontal direction, a second pair of electrodes for
measuring _ situ the electrical resistance and capacitance
along a vertical direction, a pore-liquid chamber in said probe
means having an inlet and means for relieving gas, a third pair
of electrodes in said pore liquid for measuring ln situ the

y~
electrical resistance and capacitance of pore liquid in said
chamber, filter means at the inlet to said probe means for
admitting pore liquid to said chamber and excluding the soil
therefrom, means for applying radio-frequency voltage to each
said pair of electrodes/ resistance measurement indicator means
in communication with said probe means for indicating said
measured resistance of said soil sample along said horizontal
direction and along the vertical direction and for lndicating
the measured resistance of said pore liquid, and capacitance
measurement indicator means connected to said probe means for
indicating said measured capacitance of said soil sample along
the horizontal direction and along the vertical direction and
for indicating the measured capacitance of said pore liquid.
: According to another broad aspect of the invention
there is provided a method of evaluating ln situ mechanical
; properties of soils, including sands and silts, from certain
: electrical properties thereof, comprising forcing into said
soi ~ two pairs of spaced-apart electrodes, so that some of the
in situ soil to be measured lies between said electrodes, one
said pair of electrodes being disposed horizontally and the
other being disposed vertically in said soil, sending a radio-
frequency current across said electrodes, measuring at said
:~ radio frequency the electrical resistance and capacitance of
the soil across each said pair of said electrodes to obtain the
horizontal resistance, vertical resistance, horizontal capaci-
tance and vertical capacitance of said soil ln situ, filtering
in situ pore liquid from said soil at a locus adjacent said
electrodes to obtain a soil-free pore-liquid sample atthat locus,
sending said radio-frequency current through said pore liquid,
; 30 measuring at said radio frequency the electrical resistance of
said soil-free pore liquid, and calculating from said ln situ
obtained resistances and capacitances the desired mechanical
properties.
; -7a-
, . . : .

1 Objects of the Present Invention
One object of the present invention is to provide a
3 method and implementing apparatus for measuring phenomena of
4 80il ~n situ to enable mor~ accurate ~rediction of the dynamic
properties thereof.
7 Another object of the present invention is to provide
8 a method which relates measured in situ resistance and
g capacitance to the density and fabric of soil strata.
1~)
11 A further object of the present invention is to
1~ provide probe apparatus for measuring in situ the resistance
13 and capacitance of soil.
14
~5 Yet another object of the present invention is to
16 provide a balanceabie bridge closely adjacent a soil sampling
17 probe to enable accurate measurement of resistance and
1~ capacitance of a soil sample therein.
19
Other objects of the invention include method and
21 apparatus for determinlng friction angle, elastic modulus,
22 secant modulus, coefficient of dynamic settlement, stres~
23 ratio required to cause liquefaction, and permeability
24 coefficient of soils. FurtherJ these properties can be
registered automatically.
26
27 Additional objects include method and apparatus for
~8 geo-technical studies of soils under water, for earthquake
29 study, for deposition and transport of solids in rivers, and
for othe~ soil studies.

1 Further objects of the invention are to enable better
2 initial measurement of the moisture contents of foods.
3 ' - -
4 Other objects, advantages and features of the invention
S , will become apparent from the following detailed description of
6 embodiments presented in conjunction with the accompanying
7 drawings.
8 ~'
. ` .
Brief Description of the Drawings
11 In the drawings: ,-
12
13 Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic view in vertical section of
14 a soil stratum into which a sampling hole has been bored and a
probe ~ssembly embodying the principles of the present invention
16 emplaced. Indicator apparatus of the present invention, located
17 above ground, is connected to the probe assembly by a cable.
18
~9 Fig. 2 is a greatly enlarged view in side elevation,
section and axial separation of components comprising the
21 probe assembly showr, in Fig. 1, with some of the structure
22 thereof broken away to reveal the interior.
23
24 Fig. 3 is a view in perspective of another form of
sensor element embodying the principles of the present invention
26 for the probe assembly shown in Fig. 2.
~7
28 , , Fig. 4 is a view in perspective of yet,another form
29 of sensor element embodying the principles of the present
-invention, also adapted to function as a part of the probe
31 assembly shown in Fig. 2.
_ g _
. . --
. ' ., ': ~ ' .
~ . ~ ,, .

~ ` ~
1 Fig. 5 is a view in side elevation and section of a
2 further form of sensor element embodying the principles of the
3 present invention, being adapted for use as part of the probe
4 assembly shown in Fig. 2.
6 Fig. 6 is a schematic circuit diagram of one form of
7 apparatus embodying the principles of the present invention
~ 8 shown in Fig. 1.
.'~ 9
Fig. 7 is a greatly enlarged view in front elevation
11 of th~ indicator apparatus showr. in Fig. 1.
12
Fig. 8 is a schematic circuit diagram of another
14 form of apparatus embodying the principles of the present
1~ invention which enables an operator to select between automatic
~j~ 16 and manual measurement of soil sample phenomena.
17
18 Fig. 9 is a view in side elevation and in section of
, .
19 another form of probe; it is taken along the line 9-9 in Fig. 10.
21 Fig. 10 is a top plan view of the probe of Fig. 9.
22
Fig. 11 is a graph plotting the stress ratio`required
24 to cause initial liquefaction in ten cycles against the structure
index IF defined as (F-3) A 16,
26
27 Fig. 12 is a schematic circuit diagram generally
28 similar to t'nat of Fig. 8 but showing a modified scheme.
29
- 10 -
.,
. .

1 Fig. 13 is a view in ~ide elevation and in section
2 of yet another form of probe.
4 Fig. 14 is a view in section taken along the line 14-14
in Fig. 13.
7 Fig. 15 is a view in section taken along the line 15-15
8 in Fig. I3,
Fig. 16 is a graph plotting the logarithm of the
11 formation factor F against the logarithm of th~ degree of
12 saturation S, showing a series of different sands, each with a
13 straight-line function enabling the determination of ~he degree
14 of saturation of any of them once one point on the line is known
and F has been determined.
16
17
18 Detailed Description of Some Preferred Embodiments ~-
19 Referring tc Figs. 1 and 2, apparatus 20 embodying
the principles of the present invention is illustrated. In
~1 Fig. 1, the apparatus is shown to include a probe assembly
22 21, including a sensor element 22 at the lower end and a
23 measuring element 23 above the sensor 22. The probe 21 is
24 at the lower en~ cf a probe shaft 24 which is emplaced in a
bore hole 25 which has been bored into a sandy stratum of
~ soil 26. Below the sandy stratum 26 ma~ be other strata
27 such as c~ay 27 and bedrock 28, for example. A derrick 29
28 has been used in the driLling of the sample hole 25 and is
29 shown supporting the probe shaft 24 in Fig. 1. An indicator
and control unit 30 is located at the surface remote from
- 11 -
-

~ '6~ 8
1 the probe 21, and is connected to the measuring element 23
2 via a cable 31 which carries control and power signals
3 to the probe 21 and returns electrical resistance and capacitance
4 signals therefrom to the indicator unit 30.
,
7 Probe Assembly 21, Fig. 2:
8 A preferred form of probe assembly 21 including;one
9 form of sensor element 22 co~patibly configured for physical
attachment to and use with the measuring element 23 is set
11 forth in Fig. 2. Therein the sensor portion 22 is seen to
12 include a cylindrical body 36 having a cylindrical outer metal
13 electrode 37 at the lower end portion, the electrode 37 having
14 an open end 38 at the bottom thereof. An axially ali.gned central
electrode 39, preferably made of platinum, extends downwardly
16 into the interior of the outer electrode 37 for some distance.
17 Surrounding all but a lower tip portion of the axial electrode 39
18 is a plastic insulating tube 40. An outer plastic annular
g cylindrical upper portion 41 supports the lower electrode 37
~20 which is joined thereto. The annular upper portion ~1 has a
21 tapered portion 42 at the point of joining the lower electrode
2~ 37. A housing 43, preferably made of plastic, is preferably
23 integrally formed with the upper annular portion 41. The housing
24 has a bottom wall 44, a top wall 45, and a cylindrical sidewall
~5 46 enclosing a space 47 between the bottom and top walls 44 and
26 45.
27 A vent hole 48 is provided through the upper portion 41
~8 adjacent the bottom wall 44 of the housing. The space 47 within
~9 the housing is occupied by a temperature transducer 49 having a
temperature-sensitive tip 50 which extends th~ough and for a
31 small distance below the bottom wall 44.
~ 12 -

1 Th~ sensor element 22 can also include a pore fluid
~ testing elemenc 51 for measuring the characteristics of pore
3 fluid. An opening through t-he bottom wall 44 is occupied by a
4 porous stone filter 52 through which water and other pore fluid
can pass, but which excludes soil. The pore fluid testing element
6 51 is mounted to the bottom wall 44 directly over the porous
7 stone 52 and defines a c'namber having two separated electrodes
~ 53 and 54 therein. A small vent tube 52a enables pore fluid to
g enter the chamber.
~)
11 A series of plugs extends through the top wall 45 in -
12 a predetermined pattern. One plug 55 constitutes an extension
13 of the axial electrode 39. Two other plugs 56 and 57 are to
14 two wires 58 and 59 respectively. The wires 58 and 59 pass
through the upper portion 41 and make electrical contact with
16 the cylindrical electrode 37 near its upper end. Another plug
17 60 is connected to the temperature transducer 49; and, two other
1~ plugs 61 and 62 are connected respectively to the electrodes
19. 53 and 54 within the chamber of the pore fluid testing element 52.
21 Two locking projections 63 and 64 are molded integrally
22 with, and extend upwardly from, the top wall 45 of the housing
23 43. The projections 63 and 64 have oppositely facing, inwardly
~4 projecting camming and locking surfaces for achieving a locking
engagement with complementary structural portions of the measuring
26 element 23 which is also provided with jacks 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
27 and 86 which are sized and aligned to mate with the plugs 55, 56,
28 57, 60, 61, and 62 respectively, so ~hat the sensor element 22
29 is electrically connected to the measuring element 23 by being
plug~ed into, and l~,cked in axial alignment with, the measuring
- 13 -

1 element 23. Many widely differing plugging and locking confi~u-
rations may be used to secure the sensor element 22 to the
3 measuring element 23, and the particular structure shown in
4 ~ig. 2 is by w~y of one example and is in no sense limiting.
6 The measuring element 23 includes an integrally molded
7 cylindrical plastic tube 87 having a bottom 88 closing the bottom
8 opening and a threaded flange portion 89 and top 90 closing the
g top opening of the tube 87. The threaded flange portion is
adapted to engage a threaded lower end 91 of the probe shaft 24.
11
12 The jacks 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, and 86 are mounted
13 through the bottom 88 of the tube 87. Recessed locking structure
14 92 and 93 complement the projections ~3 and 64 of the sensor
element 22 to effectuate a locking mechanism for holding the
16 sensor 22 plugged into the measuring unit 23.
17
18 A metallic shield 94 is provided inside the tube 87
19 except at the bottom, and it may be provided even at the bottom
so long as it does not short out the jacks mounted therein.
21 An enclosed and perhaps encapsulated measuring circuit 95 is
22 placed inside the shield 94 within the tube 87. One end of the
23 circuit 95 is provided with wires extending and connected to the
24 jacks 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, and 86. The control and monitoring
cable 31 leads from an opposite end of the circuit 95 and is
26 dressed through an opening in the upper region of the tube 87.
27 Alternatively, the cable 31 could pass through an opening in the
28 top 90 and thence upwardly through the interior of the probe
~9 shaft 24. As shown in Fig. 2, the cable 31 is dressed upwardly
along the sidewall of the shaft 24 and may be held in place by
31 tape, clips, etc.
- 14 -

1 Sensor 100 Fi~ 3-
. . .
~ An alternative sensor 100 embodying the principles
3 of the present invention is shown in perspective view in Fig. 3.
4 The sensor 100 includes the same electrical elements present
within the sensor 22 shown in and described in connection with
6 Fig. 2: sensor elements for a soil sample, pore fluid sensor
7 and temperature transducer. The sensor includes plugs of the
8 same size and arrangement as the plugs of-the sensor 22, and
g also includes locking projections for ]ocking it to the measuring
element 23 as with the probe 22.
11
12 The sensor 100 includes a hollow, cylindrical plastic
13 housing 101 from which four detached electrodes 102, 103, 104,
14 and 105 ext~nd in a cylindrical pattern. A central axial
electrode 106 also extends from the housing 101 and is equi-
16 distant from the electrodes 102, 103, 104, and 105. ~n insulating
17 sleeve 107 shrouds a major segment o~ the axial electrode 106
1~ from the housing outward. Edges 108 of the electrodes 102, 103,
19 104, and 105 are sharpened into knife-like blades. The provision
of four detached, yet electrically parallel, outer electrodes
21 provides better penetration into some types of soil than the
22 cylindrical electrode 37 of the sensor 22.
23
24 The housing 101 includes a porous stone 109 seated
therein as a filter for the pore fluid sensor, and a temperature
26 transducer tip 110 for use with the temperature transducer.
27
28
29
- 15 -
.,
.

/ - --
C6i~8
1 5ensor llS, Fig. 4:
_
2 Another sensor 115 embodying the principles of the
3 present invention is shown in perspective view in Fig. 4. The
4 sensor 115 enables bidimensional measurement of resistance and
capacitance of soil samples and the like, i.e., measurements
6 along two quite different lines of direction.
8 The sensor 115 has a cylindrical body 116 with ends
g closed and an interior compartment containing a pore fluid
sensor, a temperature transducer and electrical connections, etc.
11 Plugs and locking projections enable the sensor 115 to be
12 securely attached to the measuring element ~3 in the same
13 manner that the sensors 22 and 100 are attached.
14
Two single electrodes 117 and 118 pro~ect from a
1~ bottom wall 110 of the housing 116. The electrodes are preferably
17 of platinum or stainless steel and are shrouded for most of
18 their length with insulating sleeves 120 and 121. Th2 electrodes
19 117 and 118 enable sensing and measurement of capacitance and
resistance of a s.oil sample along a line of direction running
21 therebetween.
'22
23 A dual electrode 122 projects from the bottom wall
24 11~ a spaced distance from the electrodes 117 and 118. T~.e
electrode 122 includes two coaxial conductors, a central
~6 conductor 123 and an outer conductor 124. An insulating sleeve
27 125 separates the central and outer conductors 123 and 124,
28 holds them in relative fixed position and extends over most
29 of the length of the dual electrode 122, leaving only a small
end portion of the central conductor 123 exposed. A flange 126
- 16 -

`~
~$~
1 is placed over the sleeve 125 and joined to the end of the outer
2 conductor 124. ~l~e exposed portion of the central conductor 123
3 and the flange 126 enable sensing and measurement of capacitance
4 and resistance of the soil sample along a line of direction
extending between the conductor 123 and the flange 126, a
6 direction approximately normal to the line of direction between
7 the electrodes 117 and 118.
9 As with the other sensors 22 and 100 already described,
the bottom wall 119 of the sensor 115 has a porous stone 127
11 seated therein for use as a filter for a pore fluid sensor
12 mounted directly therebehind. Also, a sensing tip 128 of a
13 temperature transducer extends from thebottom wall 119.
14
16 Sensor 130, Fig, 5:
17 A sensor 130 of somewhat more rugged design than
18 the already described sensors 22, 100, and 115 is illustrated
19 in the view in elevation and sec-ion of Fig. 5. The sensor
130 includes an end-pointed hard metal cylindrical tip 131,
21 preferably of tempered steel. A plastic c.ylinder 132 of the
22 same outside diameter as the tip 131 is seated on th~ tip and
23 extends upwardly therefrom. The cylinder 132 is locked to the
24 tip 131 by a special bolt 133 having a top flange 134 which fits
over the cylinder 132, and a threaded end 135 which mates with
26 a threaded recess in the tip 131 along its axis.
27
28 Securely mounted to the top of the top flange 134
29 is a plastic plug 135 which is fitted with electrical plug
contacts 136, 137, 13~, 139, 140, and 141 which are of the
31 same size and arrangement as those o~ the other sensors 22,
- 17 -
. .

1 100, and 115 so that the sensor 130 may be interch~nged therewith.
2 Insulated openings are pro~iided through the top flange 134 for
3 connecting wires between the contacts of the plug 135 and sensing
4 elements of the sensor 130. The plug 135 is, of course, provided
with locking projections 142 and 143 for engagement with the
6 recesses 92 and 93 of the measuring element 23, shown in Fig. 2.
8 Surrounding the outside of the plastic cylinder 132
g and recessed to be flush therewith are five metallic bands
- 10 144, 145, 146, i47, and 148. The bands 144, 145, 146, 147, and
11 148 are space~ apart and electrically insulated from each other.
12 Three of the bands 144, 146, and 148 are connected in parallel
13 by a wire 149 which is connected to the contact 136 of the plug
t~ 135. The two intermediate bands 145 and 147 are comlected
in parallel by a wire 150 to the contact 137.
16
17 A porous stone filter 151 is seated in an opening of
18 the plastic cylinder. Behind the filter 151 is a pore fluid
19 sensor 152 having an interior chamber with two electrodes
therein which are connected by wires to the contacts 140 and
~21 141 of the pl~g 135. A temp~rature transducer 153 is also
mounted in a suitable opening through the plastic side wall.
23 An electrical connection from the transducer extends to the
2~ contact 139 of the plug 135.
76
27
28
~9
- 18 -
- . . . .
. .

1 Electrical Circuitry, ~ig. 6: -
2 - The apparatus 20 is shown electrically in the
3 schematic diagram of Fig. 6. Therein, the probe unit 21 is
4 divi,ded into its three major subsections: the sensor 22, the
S measuring circuit 95, and the indicator and control unit 30.
7 In turn, the measuring circuit 95 has three subsections:
8 an R-F oscillator section 161, a capacitance bridge section 162,
g and a remote control section 163.
11 The oscillator 161 includes a junction field effect
12 transistor 164 having a source resistor 165 to ground 166.
13 The gate of the JFET transistor 164 is also directly connected
1~ to ground 166. An inductor 167 connects from the drain of the
~,5 transistor 54 to a plus supply bus 168. A tank-circuit
' 16 capacitor L6~ is connected from the source to the drain of the
17 transistor 164. The source is also connected to the plus supply
18 bus 168 by another tank capacitor 170, the capacitors 169 and
19 170 forming a pi-network with the inductor 57. The drain of
the transistor 164 is connected to the plus supply bus 168 by
21 a resistor 171, and to ground by a capacitor 172.
' 22 : ,
23 Output from the oscillator 164 (a radio-frequency
24 current, preferably about one megaHertz and at least one-half
25 megaHert2) is taken from the source thereof through a resistor
26 173 to the base of an emitter-follower buffer transistor 174.
' 27 The collector of the transistor 174 is connected directly to the
28 plus supply bus 168, and the emitter thereof is connected to
~29 ground 166 through a load resistor 175. Output from the buffer
I74 is taken from the emitter via a line 176 to the bridge
31 section 162.
- 14 -
. - . .
.:.

1 The bridge circuit i62 includes input nodes 181 and
2 182, with the node 181 being connected to the oscillator system
3 output line 176, and the node 182 being conr.ected directly
4 to ground 166. Output nodes 183 and 184 are provided between
the input nodes 181 and 182. A fixed value resistor 185 is
6 connected between the nodes 181 and 184, and a fixed value
7 resistor 186 (identical in value to the resistance of the
8 resistor 185) is connected between the nodes 181 and 183.
g A variable resistGr 187 is connected from the node 182 to the
node 183. A variable capacitor 188 is connected from the node
11 181 to the node 183.
12
13 The node 184 is connected, ~or example, to on~ moving
14 contact 189 of a double pole double throw relay 190. Similarly,
the node 182 is connected to the other moving contact 191 of
16 the relay 190. Two alternative fixed contacts 192 and 193
17 associated with the moving contact 191 are connected to two
18 jacks, e.g., 82 and 85, while two complementary alternative
19 fixed contacts 194 and 195 associated with the moving contact
189 are connected to two other jacks 81 and 86. In this way,
21 the bridge section 162 may be switched by activation of the
22 relay 190 between the soil sample sensor elements 38 and 39
23 and the pore fluid sensor elements 53 and 54. Electrical
24 output from the bridge 162 is taken from the nodes 184 via a line
196, and from the node 183 via a line 197, the lines 196 and 1~7
26 extending to the indicator and control unit 30 within the cable 31.
27
2~ The remote control section 163 includes a servomotor
2g 210 which i3 mechanically linked to operate the potentiometer 187.
3~ A servomotor 211 is similarly mechanically linked to operate the
- 20 -
`
.
.,

~ 8
1 variable capacitor 188. A resi.stance indicator pote~tiometer
2 212 is contro].led by the resistor servomotor 210, and a capacitance
3 indic:ator potentiometer 213 is likewise linked mechanically to
4 the capacitor servomotor 211. One end of each of the potenti-
S ometers 212 and 213 is connected to ground 166 and the other end
6 of each is connected to a regulated supply bus 214. A resistance
7 value line 215 extends from the wiper of the poten~iometer 212 to
8 the indicator and control unit 30 within the cable 31. Similarly,
g a capacitance value line 216 is connected from the wiper of the
potentiometer 213 and extends to the indicator and control unit
11 30 as a part of the cable 31. Two control lines 217 and 218
12 from the control unit 30 provide power to -the servomotor 210 and
13 two control lines 219 and 22~ provide power to the servomotor
14 211 from the indicator unit 30.
The indicator and control unit 30 is shown schemati-
17 cally in Fig. 6, and physically in Fig. 7. It includes a full
18 wave diode rectifier bridge 231, preferably comprising
19 germanium diodes. The alternating-current nodes of the recti~ier
231 are connected to the bridge output lines 196 and 197, and
21 the direct-current nodes of the rectifier 101 are connected to
~ 22 a sensitive microammeter null meter 232. A voltme~er meter
i~ 23 233, calibrated to indicate resistance directly, is connected
between the resistance value line 215 and ground 166. A voltmeter
meter 234, calibrated to indicate ca~acitance directly, is
26 connected to the capacitance value line 216 and to ground 166.
27 A double pole, double throw switch 235 has its switching contacts
28 connected to the lines 217 and 218 and provides reversible
29 polarity direct current to opera-e the resistor control servo-
3~ motor 210 in two opposite rotations in accordance with the
- 21 ~
.

1 position of the switch 235. Similarly, a switch 236 has its
2 moving contac~s connected to the lines 219 and 220 and its
3 fixed contacts connected to supply reversible polarity direct
4 current to t~e capacitor control servomotor 211. A power source
237, which may be a storage battery, is connected to the fixed
6 contacts of the switches 235, 236 to provide the direct current
7 in accordance with the configuration shown in Fig. 6. A solid-
8 state integrated circuit regulator 238 is connected between the
g plus supply bus 168 and ground 166 and provides regulated voltage
to the regulated voltage supply bus 214.
11
12 A single pole, single throw switch 239 is connected
13 between the plus supply bus 168 and a line 240 to the armature
14 of the relay 190, the other end o, the armature thereof being
grounded. The switch 239 in the control unit 30 activates
16 the relay to switch the bridge circuit 162 between the soil
17 sample sensing elements 38, 39 and the pore fluid sensing
18 elements 53, 54 of the sensor 22, Fig. 2.
19
A direct reading temperature motor 255 is provided
21i in the indicator and control unit 30. The meter 255 is
22 connected between the plus supply bus 168 and a line 256
23 leading to the temperature transducer 49 in the probe sensor
24 22 via the jack 84 and the mating plug 60. The transducer 49
is provided with a return connection to ground via a plug 257
~6 and a mating jack 258 (not shown in Fig. 2~.
27
~8 As æeen in Fig 7, the indicator and control unit 30
29 may be provided in a suitable housing 250 that includes an
on-off switch 251 in addition to the relay switch 239 resistor
- 2~ -
~ . .

r~ 8
1 control switch 235, capacitor control switch 236, and the
2 four :indicators: the null meter 232, the resistance meter 233,
3 the capacitance meter 234 and the temperature meter 255. The
4 solid-state regulator chip 238 is mounted on the side of the
case 250. The cable 31 extends from the case 250 to the measuring
6 element 95 of the probe 21, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The
7 resistance meter 233, the capacitance meter 234, and the temperature
8 meter 255 are calibrated so that resistance and temperature
9 capacitance values may be read directly from their scales 252,
253, and 259, respectively.
11
12
13 Electrical circuit of Fig. 8
14 Fig. 8 sets forth an embodiment of soil measurement
apparatus constructed in accordance with the present invention
16 which may be operated manually or automatically. Therein a
17 probe 320 includes a sensor 321 which may be similar to the
18 sensors 22, 100, 115, and 130 shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and ~,
19 and described in connection therewith. The pore fluid sampling
element 52 and related switching circuit is not shown in
21 connection with the probe 320 forthe sake of clarity. In
22 practice they would probably be included.
23
24 The probe 320 includes a bridge circuit 322 and
an oscillator section 323. The oscillator includes an R-F
26 oscillator 324, preferably operating at about one megaHertz,
27 and an audio oscillator 325 operating preferably at about one
28 kiloHertz. The oscillators 324 and 325 are connected to a
29 modulator stage 326 whereupon the audio signal from the
oscillator 325 is modulated on the R-F carrier generated by
- 23 -

1 the oscillator 324. The output from the modulator stage 326
2 is connected to a primary winding of a transformer 327 having
3 a center tapped secondary winding within the bridge circuit.
S The bridge circuit includes another transformer 328
6 having a multiply-tapped and center-tapped primary winding, with
7 the center tap thereof being connected directly to the center tap
B of the secondary of the transformer 327. One segment of the center-
g tapped secondary of the transformer 327 is connected to one of the
electrodes of the sensor 321, and one segment of the primary
11 winding of the coil 328 is connected to the other electrode
12 o the probe sensor 321 through a tap selection switch 329
13 which may be used to vary the transformation ratio of the trans-
14 former 328. The tap selection switch enables the large range of
resistance values desired to be measured with the help of a much
16 small.er range of standards.
17
18 An incrementally,variable capacitance network 330
19 is connected from the other end of the secondary of the transformer
20 327 to the other end,of the primary of the transformer 328
21 through a tap selection switch 331. The network 330 includes ,
22 capacitors 330a, 330~l 330c . . .330_, to provide the incremental
~3 variation of capacitance to balance the bridge circuit 322.
24 In like manner, an incrementally variable resistance network
332 is connected to the secondary of the transformer 328 through
~6 a tap selection switch 333. The resistance netwo~k includes the
27 resistors 332a, 332_, 332c . . .332 .
2S -
29 The off-null radio-frequency error signal from the bridge
30 circuit 322 in the probe 320 is taken from the secondary winding
31 of the transformer 328 via a cable 338 to a detector 339 which
- 24 -
.

2~
1 includes an R-F ~reamplifier 340, where an amplitude-modulated
2 radio-frequenc~- carrier is amplified to a suitable predetermined
3 level. Thereupon the signal is provided to an intermediate-
4 ~requency amplifier circuit 341 for further amplification. The
output of the amplifier 341 is passed through a rectifier 342 to
6 separate the audio modulating signal from the carrier. ~n output
7 line 343 from the rectifier 342 may be connected to an audio
8 amplifier 344 driving a loudspeaker 345 or any other indicating
g device which is useful for indicating aurally the null point of the
10 bridge 322. The output line 343 may also be connected to a filter
11 346 to provide a filtered analog DC voltage. The analog voltage
12 may be sent to a direct reading digital voltmeter 347, and to the
13 input of an analog to digital converter 348 wherein the magnitude
14 of the analog voltage is digitized. The digitized output of the
lS analog to digital converter 348 is provided as an input to a
16 digital computer 349. The computer 349 is preferably implemented
17 as a dedicated special purpose microcomputer such as the Intersil
18 IM6100 and including an operating system and data base in
19 programmed read only memory and a scratchpad random access memory.
21 The computer 349 processes the input digital signal
22 from the analog to digital circuit 348 and determines automatically
23 the incremental change required in the capacitance network 330
24 and the resistance network 332 to bring the bridge 322 into
25 balance, when a soil sample is emplaced in the sensor element 321.
26 The incremental change in capacitance and resistance is sent
27 to the probe 320 through a serial input/output port 350 via
28 conductors in the cable 338 to a universal asynchronous receiver
z9 transmitter 351 in the probe 320 which loads the serial signal
30 into a shift register 352 also in the probe.
- 25 -

1 The shit register 352 functions to decode the output from the
2 computer into ncremental capacitance and resistance switch
3 signals.
Switch lines 353 from the shift register 352 are
connected to switches in series with the elements of the
7 incremental variable capacitance netuork 330, there being
8 a switch 354a for the capacitor 330a, a switch 354b for the
9 capacitor 330b, a switch 354c for the capacitor 330c, and a
switch 354n for the capacitor 330n of the network 330. In
11 like manner, others of the output lines 353 from the shift
12 register 352 are connected to switches 355 in the incremental
13 variable resistance network 332. Thus, a switch 355a is in series
14 with the resistance element 332a, a switch 355b is in series
with the resi.stance element 332_, a switch 355c is in series
16 with the resistor 332c, and the switch 355_ is in series with
17 the resistor 332n. The switches 354 and 355 may be implemented
18 as relays or as solid-state switching devices, with either
g being equally well suited to the application.
21 A monitor unit 356 is connected to the computer 349
22 through an input/output interface 357 which is connected to
-23 the computer 145 via an interconnection cable 358. The input/
~4 output buffer 357 may be connected to a digital readout 359
2S within the remote monitor unit 154 and to a hard copy printer
26 360. The computer 349 calculates the capacitance and
27 resistance of the soil sample after the computer 349 has
28 automatically balanced the bridge circuit 322. When the
29 resistance and capacitance values are calculated, they are
then supplied to the digital readout 359 and to ~he printer
31 360 whereupon the values may be read and utilized in accordance
32 with the principles of the present invention.
- 26 -
;

-
1 It will be appreciated by those skilled ln the art
2 that the autornatic operatior of the probe 320 and its assoclated
3 equipment is very rapid, and once the probe sensor 321 is
4 provi.ded with a sample of granular soil~ the computer 349 very
S rapidly balances the bridge 322, and provides a readout of
6 capacitance and resistance values at the monitor unit 154.
8 The automatic circuitry embodiment of the present
g inveniton described in connection with Fig. 8, may be operated
in a manual mode. For manual operation, a manual set switch
11 panel 361 is provided in themonitor unit 356. The switch
1~ panel is connected to the UART 351 in t'ne probe through the
13 cable 358 and overrides the computer 349. In this way, increments
14 of resistance and capacitance in the networks 330 and 332 of the
bridge 322 may be set by setting switches in the manual set
16 switch panel. The null point of the bridge, when undergoing
17 manual balancing, is indicated aurally by the loudspeaker 345
18 and visually by the digital voltmeter 347. It is to be
19 appreciated that the null point will occur at the point of minimum
23 sound and meter reading.
'21
- 22 The electrical apparatus at the surface, namely
23 the detector 339, amplifier 344, loudspeaker 345, digital
24 voltmeter 347, a~alog to digital converter 348, computer 349,
serial input/output 350, and monitor unit 356 are preferably
26 contained in a hermietically sealed container providing
` 27 capacitively activated (proximity) switches so that blowing
` 28 sand at the measurement site will not ente_ the apparatus.
; ~g Similar precautions would undoubtedly have to be taken to
protect the hard copy printer 360. Alternatively, the apparatus
- 27 -

1 could include sealed recording units in connection with the
2 in/out port 357. The recording units could then be taken to
3 a controlled environment and read into a printer or readout
4 thereby providing, albeit somewhat delayed, direct measurement
in the site of soil phenomena.
7 Electrical circuit of Fig. 12
8 Fig. 12 shows a circuit generally like that of Fig. 8
9 but with some significant changes. Like the circuit of Fig. 8,
it employs an R-F oscillator 324, which preferably generates a
11 frequency of about one megaHertz, since radio frequencies, i.e.,
12 frequencies of at least about one-half megaHertz,are essential
13 for obtaining steady and reliable capacitance values from soils.
14 However, in the Fig. 12 modification there is no modulation of
the P~-F signal, and that signal is fed directly to the primary
16 coil of the first transformer 327.
17
18 The output from the secondary coil of the second
19 transformer 328 is fed to a mixer 370, which also receives a
mixing signal from an oscillator 371. This mixing signal can
21 range in frequency from about 500 kHz to about 950 kHz. The
22 mixer 370 i5 a standard type of mixer for producing a different
23 signal having a frequenc~ equal to the differences in frequency
24 between the R-F signal and the mixing signal; the mixer 370,
for example, may be a multiplier or a balanced modulator. For
26 example, if the R-F signal has a frequency of 1 mHz and the
27 mixing signal has a frequency of 900 kHz, the difference
28 signal would have a frequency of 100 kHz.
29
- ~8 -

1 This difference signal is then applied to an
2 amplifier-detector circuit 372 which, preEerably, first amplifies
3 the difference signal and then detects it, so that ~he other
4 signals emitted from the ~ixer 370 are removed. Standard I-F
amplifier circuits and standard I-F detection circuitry may be
6 used
8 The detected and amplified difference signal is then
g rectified, as by a standard rectifier 373. All of the elements
370 through 373 may be inside the housing for the probe 320 or
11 may be (less conveniently) located outside and above ground.
12 If located inside the probe housing, the output from the rectifier
3 373 may be connected by a cable 374 to the filter 346. The
4 filter 346 and the other elements having the same reference
~ numerals as those in ~ig. 8 may be as described in connection
16 with that figure.
17
18 The probe 321 includes a pair of electrodes for
l9 sensing along a horizontal direction and a pair of electrodes
for sensing along a vertical direction (one electrode of ea~h
21 pair may be the sa~e member~, and also includes a pore-liquid
22 sensing chamber 375 having a solenoid valve 376 for admitting
23 pore-liquid thereinto and activated by the computer 349.
24 ~lectrodes 377 are put into the sensing circuitry by switches
~5 378 by the shift register 352 (or the relaysj. Thus the
~6 computer 349 receives signals conveying the magnitude of the
27 (1) horizontal resistances of the soil> (2) the vertical
28 rcsistance of the soil, (3) the horizontal capacitance of the
29 soil, (4) the vertical capacitance of the soil, (5) the pore-liquid
resistance, and (6) the pore-liquid capacitance. The computer 349
- 29 -

1 also receives a temperature signal generated by a tem2erature
2 sen~or 380 via an amplifier 381 and an analog-to-digital converter
3 382. The computer 349 is preferably programmed to accommodate
all these parameters.
6 Thus Fig. 12 shows another way of preparing the
7 R-F signal for reception by the computer or for manual use, if
8 desired. In both Fig. 8 and Fig. 12 the ~-F signal from the
9 bridge is converted into an amplified signal, preferably rectified,
of a type suitable for feeding to a digital computer.
11
12
13 Operation of the Systems 20, 120
.
14 While the manually operable apparatus 20 di~fers
somewhat structurally from automatically operated probe 320,
16 the measurements resulting from both devices are identical.
17 Measurements may differ slightly depending on the configuration
18 of the sensor element and depending upon the direction of the
19 line of measurement effectuated by the particular sensor.
21 The steps to be followed for measuring resistance
22 and capacitance of granular soil in situ are first to provide
23 access to the soil sample locus, e.g., by drilling to a fixed
24 depth. The drill is then withdrawn and the probe may then be
~5 attached to the tip of a drill and lowered into the bore hold
26 until a soil sample fills, e.g., the sensor 22. Thereupon,
27 the bridge circuit is balanced, and the capacitance and
28 resistance of the soil is directly indicated and recorded.
29 The measured resistance and capacitance values are thereupon
converted to conductivity and dielectric constant by readings
31 from suitable calibration ch&rts.
- 30 -

-
1 R small quantity, 100 grams, for example, of the
2 measured soil sample, as well as a small quantity, 100 cc, for
3 example, of pore fluid may be extracted from the bore hole,
4 the sample being retained in the sensor 22 as it is withdrawn
and the pore fluid being collected and withdrawn after removal
6 of the probe. The probe may then be used to measure the
7 conductivity of the collected pore fluid. Alternatively, the
8 sensor 22 may be provided with the pore fluid sensor 52 and
9 conductivity of the pore fluid may then be measured with the
probe in situ. In any event, collection and measurement of the
11 conductivity of the pore fluid is required to calculate the
12 formation fac~or by using the expression:
13
conductivitY of Pore fluid
14 F conductivity of sand-solution (7)
16 and then applying the result in the equation for porosity,
17 equation (4), above.
18
19 The soil sample and the pore fluid may also be
subjected to laboratory analysis to confirm the accuracy and
21 calibration of the apparatus of the present invention, if such
22 need be the case.
23
24 If the soil is 100% saturated with pore liquid, the
conductivity of the mixture of sand and liquid will, of course,
26 be different from that of the same soil at a lower degree of
27 saturation. However, by measuring the conductivity of the soil
28 sample at 100% saturation, F c~n be determined for that condition.
29 Then, as shown in Fig. 16, with the one point F at 100% saturation
known, the characteristics of the soil in t~is particular are
- 31 -

6~3
1 determined, for the relationship between the logarithm of the
2 formation factor (log. F) and the logarithm of the degree of
3 saturation ~log. S) is a straight line function fl with a
4 known slope ~or all sands and soils. Hence, once the point
1O8. F at 100% S is known one can determine the degree of
6 saturation for any in situ measurement from the reading F, for
7 the logarithm of that F reading will intersect the curve fl
8 at the degree of saturat on. In the graph of Fig. 16, f2 and
g f3 i.ndicate other sands with different characteristics, and
they show that the slope rema~ns the same.
12 With the porosi.ty and formation factor values calcula,ed
13 from the in situ measurements, other engineering properties
~4 may then be derived, as follows:
16 1) Friction angle ~ = -148 ~ + 84 (8)
17 or ~ = 13.8F - 20.7
18 The range of expected values of friction angle is
19 ~ = 25 - 55
22 2) Coefficient of dynamic settlement: -
23 Ca =-10F + 50 (9)
~4 Expected values for this coefficient are 1 to 14.
26
27 3) Stress ratio required to cause liquefaction:
28 t/~o = -1.64 ~ + .727 (10)
Values of t/aO expected to be .1 to 1.
- 32 -

~ 8
1 4) Permeability coefficient K cm/sec
K -- 1.5 ~ - .18 (11)
3 The range for K would be expe'cted to be 10 1 to 10 6
4 cm/sec for clay to 5 megaHer~3.
6 Several tests have been carried out in a large box
7 of sand using equipment described herein. The results obtained
8 were within 1 to 2% of the actual values of porosity as well as
g formation fac~or as measured by standa d laboratory equipment.
Calculation of elastic modulus a~d secant modulus may also be
11 accomplished with the method and apparatus of the present
12 invention.
13
14 The method and apparatus described herein may be
applied effectively to all geotechnical engineering problems
16 dealing with sands and silts. Determination of properties of
17 marine deposits at the bottom of the ocean, determination of
~18 the behavior of soils during earthquakes, and continuous monitoring
19 of properties of soils before, during, and after earthquakes
and otherwise, are but a few examples of the many applications
~21 to which the methods and apparatus of the present invention may
22 be effectively applied. In addition the methods and apparatus
23 of the present invention may be applied to determine physical
24 properties of a wide variety of materials such as foodstuffs
and other granulated, powdered, and paste materials and substances.
26
27
23
2~

~ 6
1 Another Prot.e 400 ~Figs. 9 and lO)
2 Figs. 9 and 10 show another probe 400, for use in
3 taking readings in two mutually perpendicu~ar directions. It
4 may be used with the eircuits as described above.
6 A dise 401 of insulating material ~e.g , Plexiglass~
7 is secured by serews 402 to a tube 403 of metal such as brass
8 or stainless steel, whieh extends both above and below the
9 dise 401. The disc 401 is provided with two diametrically
opposite receptacles 404 and 405 in which are seated, respectively,
11 tWG conductive metal rods 406 and 407 (preferably brass or
12 stainless steel, which are secured to the dise 401 by respect ve
13 screws 408 and 409. The rods 406 and 407 extend down from
14 the disc and beyond the lower edge 410 of the tube 403, to
which they are elamped by clamps 411 and 412.
16
:
17 Each rod 406, 407 is covered by insulator tubing
18 413, 414, preferably of shrink tubing shrunk snugly around the
19 rod. A conductive wire 415 passes through the disc 401 and
2~ passes down the outside of the tubing 413, and a second insulator
21 tube 416 is shrunk onto the rod 406 and covers and protects
22 the wire 415, which is insula-ted from the rod 406 by the
23 tubing 413.
~4
The bottom surfaee of the rods 406 and 407 are each
26 eovered with an insulating dise 417 and 418, respectively,
27 whieh meets the shrink tubing 413s 416, and 414 J respectively,
~8 to enclose and insulate the lower end of the rods 406 and 407.
29 A tubular metal eleetrode 420 (e.g., brass or stainless steel)
; 30 lies just below the disc 417 and is bra2ed to the wire 415,
31 which may be of eopper.
~rade /YI~
- 34 -
.;
~, - . . . ..

1 Two elongated rod electrodes 421 and 422 have
2 respective pointed lower ends 423, 424 and threaded upper ends
3 425 and 426, which are threaded into the rods 406 and 407.
4 To get maximum distances between the electrode 421 and 422, the
tops in the rods 406 and 407 for the rods 421 and 422 may
6 be eccentric, outwardly, as shown. The electrodes 421 and 422
7 each have an insulated covering 427, 428, which encircles
~ most of this shank and also insulates them from the electrode
9 420. Thus, there is a possibility of sending current across - -
a lower end of the two rod electrodes 42i and 422 and also of
11 sending current across the electrode 420 and the lower end of
12 the electrode 421.
13
14 The upper end of the disc 401 is attached to an
adapter 430, as by screws 431. The adapter 431 has a terminal
16 432 for the rod 406 and electrode 421, a terminal 433 for the
17 rod 407 and electrode 422, and a terminal 434 for the wire
18 415 and its electrode 420.
19
A passage 435 through the disc 401 has a receptacle
~1 43~ for a porous stone 437 and leads to a chamber 440 which may
~2 be provided by a separate cylinder 440a in the adapter 430,
where there are terminals 441 and 442 for sending current
24 across the liquid that passes from the soil through the stem
437 into the chamber 440. .A second porous stone 443, mounted
26 in the adapter 430 and joined by a passage 444 to the chamber
27 440. provides for the exit of air from the chamber 440.
28
29 A temperature probe 445 is also provided.
- 35 -

1 The adapter 430 has a series of output terminals
2 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, and 451 which are connected internally -
3 to the terminals 432, 433, 434, 441, 442, and the temperature
4 probe 445.
6 The operation is substantially the same as for the
7 sensor 115.
The Prvbe 500 of Figs. 13-15
11 The probe 500 is, in many ways like the probe 400,
12 but it is more rugged and has several advantages that will be
13 pointed out in the following description. Two conductive metal
14 rods 501 and 502 have respective lower tapered portions 503 and
504 and end, respectively, in smaller-diameter electrode portions
16 505 and 506 with pointed ends 507 and 508.
17
18 . The upper portions of the Eods 501 and 502 are braced
l9 by a large insulating cylindrical body 510 through passages 511
and 512 they pass. The lower end portion 513 of the body 510
21 is tapered,-as by two sloping sides 514 and 515 (Fig. 14), to
22 assist in driving the probe 500 into place for a measurement.
23 Below the body's lower end 516, the rods 501 and 502 are braced
24 by an intermediate relatively thin, flat insulating member 517.
This member 517 helps to maintain the proper spacing between
26 the rods 501 and 502 (and therefore between the electrodes 505
and 506) but, being thin, does not interfere with (and in fact
28 may assist) the operation of driving the electrodes 505 and 506
2g into their measuring position. The insulatin~ member 517 may be
joined to the lower end 516 of the body 510 by an insulating
31 gasket 518 and there may be an insulating rim 519 at its lower end.
- 36 -
.. .
. .
.
,, , , . ::

~ 6
1 B~low the body 510 the rods 501 and 502 are surrounded
by tubular insulators 521 and 522, respectively.
4 The electrodes 505 and 506 are used to make resistance
and capacitance measurements in the horizontal direction. An
6 electrode 523 is used with the electrode 505 to make measurements
7 in the vertical direction. The electrode 523 encircles the
8 insulating tube 521, which insulates it from the rod 503, while
g an insulated lead 524 extends up inside a recess 525 in the member
517 and through a passage 526 in the body 510 to the upper end
11 thereof.
12
13 Another advantage of the probe 500 is its ability to
14 secure pore liquid from a locus closely adjacent to the electrodes
505 and 506. For this purpose, the member 517 is provided with
16 an interior bor~ or passage 527 leading from near its lower end
17 up to the upper end, where it joins a passage 528 in the body
18 510. A suitable filter 529 (porous stone or replaceable
19 cotton padding, for example) may be provided in the passage 527
or in the inlet openings 530 at or near the lower end of the
21 passage 527. The openings 530 preferably comprise a transverse
22 'bore.
.
23
24 Another feature i5 that the pore-liquid passage
528 in the body 510 leads up to a solenoid-actuated valve 531,
which is normally closed. When the valve 531 is actuated (as
26
27 by a manual switrh above ground or by an automatically or event-
28 activated switch, the pore liquid can pass fro,m the passage 528
29 into a conduit 532 that conducts it into a pore-liquid chamber
533. The valve 531 enables the operator to rest.rain the passage
31 of pore liquid into the chamber 533 until a desired amount is in
32 the conduit 527 and also enables a cut-off once the chamber 533
'
- 37 -
:'
~ '

~L~ ~ 6~ ~
1 is filled to a desired level. I~e chamber 533 contains electrodes
2 534 and 535 for determining pore-liquid conductivity. Gas
3 may be vented, but Figs. 13 and 14 sho~ an expandable enclosure
4 536, like a balloon, into which the gas flows from the chamber
533. Hence, no venting to atmosphere is necessary.
7 A temperature probe 537 and lead 538 are also
8 provided. Preferably the temperature probe 537 is located near
9 the lower edge of the member 517.
--
11 Connections for the various leads may be as before, and
12 the circuit of Figs. 6, 8, or 12 may be used.
13
14
Further Features and Applications of the Invention
16 For the first time, this invention relates the
17 electrical properties of soils to their mechanical properties.
18 Some of these relationships have already been pointed out, and
19 others will be discussed. From ln situ measurements alone of
the electrical properties, the mechanical properties can be
21 calculated and instantaneously printed out on a screen or chart.
22
23 For clays, one can extend the method by using different
2~ frequencies to measure the resistance and capacitance at, for
example, 1 megaHertz, then at 5, 10, 50, and 100 megaHert~
26 and from these measurements predict the mechanical properties
2? and also the type of clay and the amount in a particular such
28 surface layer.
3~ , -
- 38 -
.. .. ' . ~ ~ '

1 Whereas heretofore the in situ density had been
2 considered the major factor affecting the mechanical behavior
3 of soils, it is no~ apparent that the structure of soils is
4 the major factor controlling the mechanical behavior. The
structure of soil includes three aspects: (1) the spatial
6 arrangement of the solid particles, (2) the shape, size, and
7 size distribution of the solid particles, and (3) the associated
8 void. However, none of the methods heretofore in use could
g predict even the in situ density and had to rely on combinations
Of laboratory and field instruments.
11
12 The present invention can measure the in s u density
13 directly. It can also evaluate the soil-structure aspects
14 and can thereby provide a "packing index" of the soil. It ca~
also give a direct reading of relative density. Such a
16 characterization makes it possible to predict the li~uefaction
17 behavior of soils.
18
19
21
22 "
23
2~
26
27
~8
29
- 39 -

1 1. Determin~tion of In Situ Density
from Field Measurements Alone
3 An expression developed by Rayleigh can be extended
4 to determine in situ porosity of uniformly graded sands.
6 /F = ( 1 - n) ( 12)
7 1 + /F
g where n is the porosity and F is the "formation factor" defined
by
11 F = conductivity of pore fluid
conductivity o ~soil + so ution)
12
13 The formation factor F is a directional structure index parameter
14 which depends on particle shape, particle gradation, particle
orientation, and the associated voids.
16
17 By conventional algebraic manipulation and solving
18 for n, the above expression becomes
'~. 19
; ZO- n = 1 2 F (13)
21
. 22 and the validity of the expression has been tested by measurement
23 on three different sands.
24 Predicted
Type of Sand Porosity F Measured _orosity
26 Monterey 'O' .410 3.90 .410
Ottawa C109 .400 3.86 .410
27 .3~5 4.1 .390
.375 4.~8 .380
28 .38 4.2~ .380
~9 Sierra Diamond .44 3.7 .43
:.
~ - 40 -
:

~ D ~ 8
1 The above results show that porosity can be predicted
2 in the field from direct measurements without resorting to
3 calibration of the sand in the laboratory.
2. Determination of Relative Density in the Field
6 Several experimental results have confirmed that,
7 at maximum porosity, the formation factor of sands is about 3.
8 This fact can be used to determine the relative d~nsity of
g uniformly graded sands. The F value at the minimum porosity
for uniformly graded sands is about 4.8. This fact can be
11 used to determine the relative density Dr in the field as
~2 follows:
13
14 Dr = 3 - 4.8 (14)
16 or
17 D = F - 3 (15)
18
19
3. Determination of the State of Packing Of - Sands
21 An i.ndirect method to determine the st~te of packing
22 or arrangement of sands is to define a parameter called the
23 coefficient of anisotropy, A:
24
~5
26 A - ~ (16)
~7
28 where FV is the formation factor as measured between vertical
29 electrodes (e.g., across the electrodes 420 and 421), and F.~
~o is t~le formation factor measured between horizontal electrodes
31 (e.g., across the electrodes 421 and 422).
- 41 -

: :
~L~'6~ ~
1 Different methods of sample preparation result in
2 different particle and contact normal orientations. Samples
3 pluviated in air tend to orient themse]ves with their long
4 axis in a horizontal plane. Moist tamping tends to orient
the particles with more long axes in the vertica~ direction.
6 Moist vibrated samples have an even greater tendency toward
7 vertical orientation than tamped samples. The path of electric
current through sand samples is dependent on orientatlon of
g particles. It is reasonable that a current path will be
- 10 tortuous in a direction perpendicular to the par-ticle long axis
11 orientation. For pluviated samples then, the vertical formation
12 factor, Fv, should be greater than horizontal formation factor,
13 FH. This reasoning is supported by data summarized in Table 1.
; 14
The coefficient of anisotropy can ~e used in conjunction
~6 with other factors. Thus, defining f as a function of-shape and
17 orientatiOn 9
18
19 F = n , (17)
21 and the formation factors FV and FH in formula (16) can be
22 related to fV and fH, as follows:
23
24 F 1 + l ~ n f (18)
26
" F = l + 1 ~ n f (19)
28
~g
- 42 -

1 Furthermore,
3 fv fo cos ~ + fgo sin
4 f 2
n 1/2 [fo + fgo + ros ~ (fgo ~ f ) ] (21)
7 where ~ is the orientation of the major axis relative. to the
8 vertical direction of measurement and
9 ~O and fgo are form factors wher~ the current is~
respectively, parallel to and perpendicular to the major axis.
11
~
13
14
16
17
18
19
21
22
23 :
24
26
27
28
29
- 43 -
.

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3 ~ o o o ~ ~ o
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6 ~ ~ J ~ ~ i
7 ~ o ~ ~ ~ o
~ .~ o o~ ~ o o~ o X
g ~ ~ C ~ o o ~ o ,i ~
9 ~ ~
10 u~ ~ oo r- o ~
~3 ~ N ~ J ~ U') ~1 ~3
1 ~ P ~ C ~ C'~
O ~ P~ . ~ - :
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17 ~3 ~ 4 ~ ¢
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21 ~ ~ ~ c~
2~ ~ ~ .~ p~ ~ pc~
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23 ~ ~
4 E~ ~-~3 ~~ ~~ o ~:
26
27 ~ o
28 ~
2~ .~ o O o
v~ ~ ~ o P~
- 44 -

1 4. Determination of ~he Shape of ~articles
2 This is carried out using an expression relating F
3 and n to a shape factor, X:
.
5 X = ~ 1 (22
8 X has a value of 2 for spheres and is less than 2 for spheroids,
9 X decreasing as the axial ratio of the spheroid increases.
11
12 5. Structure Index of Sand
13 One structure index for sands may be defined as:
14 Structure Index IF '
16 IF = (F - 3)A (23)
17
18 It is therefore possible to examine the correlation
19 between this structure index and the liquefaction behavior of
sands. The results presented in Fig. 11 plot the stress ratio
~21 required to cause initial liquefaction in ten cycles (vertical)
22 against IF, with A being modified to reduce the magnitude o~
23 the numberr as A 16. X expresses the shape. Similar relation-
24 ships for other sands can be used to predict the stress ratio
required to cause liquefaction.
26
27 Another structure index IDR is related to relative
28 density and is defined as:
~9
IDF Dr A (24)
'
- 45 -
, : . :

-
1 6. Prediction of Friction Angl~ from In Situ Measurements
2 Earlier relationship of formation factor to friction
3 angle was established from results on one sand. Recently, other
4 sands have been tested and a new general relationship discovered.
m e equation relating formation factor and shape of particles
6 to friction angle is
8 ~ = 13.33 FX - 10.33 (25)
Thus by measuring F and X in field ~ can be predicted.
11
12
13 7. Relationship between Structure Index,
Shape Factor, and Stress Ratio
14 Required to Cause Initial Liquefaction
in 10 Cycles
16 The results of numerou3 studies have confirmed hat
17 the initial liquefaction behavior of saturated sands is
1~ influenced primarily by soil type and gradation, porosity,
g strain history, the initial effective confining pressure for
a given intensity and duration of shaking. At a given strain
21 historyj initial effective confining pressure, and for a given
22 intensity and duration of shaking, particle size, shape, and
23 gradation have a great influence on liquefaction character-
istics of sands. The influence of size, shape, and gradation
characteristics of sand at a given porosity is characterized
26 by its relative density.
27
28 The importance of factors other than denæity on the
~9 liquefaction characteristics of sand has been reported by many
investigators. Some have showed that the liquefaction charac-
31 teristics were influenced by the strain history to which they
- 46 -
: : .
.. ..
:., ,

~¢~6~ ~
1 have been subjected, Recent studies show that samples of a
2 given sand prepared to the sa~e density by different methods
3 may have different settlement characteristics, different
4 liquefaction characteristics, different structures, different
penetration resistances, different permeability characteristics,
6 different dynamic modulus and damping characteristics, and
7 different compressibility characteristics. Thus, the potential
8 significance of factors other than density in producing changes
g in liquefaction characteristics has been given important support
~ and clearly warrants consideration in any design study of lique-
11 faction potential-
12
1~ Thin section studies on Monterey 'O' sand prepared
14 by different methods show that moist vibrated samples at 50
percent relative density have a nearly random distribution of
16 long axis orientations. Definite preferred orientation of long
17 axes in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis was developed
18 by pluviation. The formation factor values measured in the
19 vertical direction, Fv, are also in increasing order for moist
~o vibrated, moist tamped or pluviated samples at a given relative
21 density. It appears that for a given relative density the
22 greater the intensity of preferred long axis orientation in a
direction normal to the direction of the applied cyclic dev.iator
24 stress, the less resistance to liquefaction under triaxial
loading conditions.
26
27
28
~9
- 47 -
~- . . .

1 The facts that an electrical anisotropy coefficient,
4 A _ ~ FV (16)
6 can be measured and that the electrical parameter F is affected
7 by preferred long axis orientations suggest that A is a measure
8 of particle orientation. It has been shown that particle
g orientation as well as relative density and shape effect the
stress ratio required to cause initial liquefaction, therefore
11 a relationship between A, Dr, the shape factor X, and the
12 stress ratio required to cause initial liquefaction for three
13 different sands (Ottawa C109, Monterey 'O', and Sierra Diamond)
14 was developed and is tabulated in Table 2. These relationships
are for three uniformly graded sands with different shapes.
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
~6
27
~8
29
- 48 -
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6~3
1 To those skilled in the art to which thls invention
2 relates, many changes in construction and widely differing
3 embodiments and applications of the invention will suggest
4 themselves without departing from the spirit and scope of the
invention. l'he disclosures and the description herein are
6 purely illustrative and are not intended to be in any sense
7 limiting.
9 I claim:
11
12
13
16
17
18
19
:.
21
22
23
24
2~
27
28
~9
- 50 -
.