Note: Descriptions are shown in the official language in which they were submitted.
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6580-143 / JRR
Title: METHOD FOR ENRICHING DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID IN
EXPRESSED MILK OF DAIRY CATTLE
Field of the Invention:
This invention relates to a feed additive, and a method for
enriching docosahexaenoic acid in expressed milk of dairy cattle.
Background Of The Invention:
The omega-3 (or n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid known as
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is found in abundance in the brain and
retina. DHA has been found to be required at high levels in the brain
and retina for optimal mental functioning (learning ability, etc.) and
visual acuity (visual performance), respectively. Therefore, dietary
DHA is regarded as an essential dietary nutrient for infants (both
preterm and term) and children on mixed diets ((British Nutrition
Foundation: Unsaturated fatty acids: Nutritional and Physiological
Significance. Andover, England: Chapman and Hall, 1992, and British
Nutrition Foundation; Recommendations for Intakes of Unsaturated
Fatty Acids,1992).
Studies have shown significant alleviation of various risk
factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) when fish and fish oils
containing the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids DHA and
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are consumed. Epidemiological studies
have also shown an inverse relationship between DHA levels in the
population (diet/blood) and the risk of CVD (Leng, G.C. et al.,
Arterioscler. Thromb. 1994; 14:471-478, Simon, J.A., et al. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 1995; 142:469-476). Therefore, part of the cardioprotective
effect of fish/fish oils containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is
due to DHA, in addition to EPA. The cardioprotective effects of
omega-3 fatty acids are considered to be mediated by a number of
physiological/biochemical mechanisms. Studies have shown that the
enrichment of heart tissue in DHA provides an antiarrhythmic effect
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(Pepe, S. and McLennan, P.L. J. Nutr. 1996; 126:34-42) which may
account for the reductions in cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death in
those having a higher DHA status (in diet/body). In addition, dietary
DHA intakes and increased status in the body have been implicated in
favourable effects on attention-deficit disorders (Stevens, L.J. et al Am.
J. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 62:761-768), depression and anxiety disorders
(Hibbeln, J.R. and Salem, N. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 62:1-9.), as well as
protection against breast cancer in postmenopausal women (Zhu, Z.R.,
et al., Nutr. Cancer. 1995; 24:151-160).
DHA is found in abundance in fish and fish oils (with very
minor amounts in eggs and some meats), but it is absent from all
plant-derived food products including vegetable oils. Certain plant
oils (eg., soybean oil) contain moderate amounts of another omega-3
fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), which can, to an extremely
limited extent (Emken, E.A., et al. BBA. 1994; 1213:277-288 and Salem,
N., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1996; 93:49-54.) be metabolically
converted in the body to provide sub-optimal amounts of DHA.
Mothers' breast milk in North America and elsewhere typically
contains approx. 0.14 to 0.2% by wt. of the fat/fatty acids as DHA
(Chen, Z.-Y., et al., Lipids. 1995; 30:15-21 and Makrides, M., et al., Am.
J. Clin. Nutr. 1995; 61:1231-1233). Infants on breast milk (a source of
DHA) perform better in visual acuity testing than those on formulae
typically used in North America lacking DHA (Nettleton, J.A. J. Am.
Diet Assoc. 1993; 93:58-64 and Makrides, M., et al., Lancet. 1995;
345:1463-68). Intelligence scores were also found to be higher in
children receiving breast milk containing DHA when young (Lucas,
A., et al., Lancet. 1992; 339:261-264). DHA has been added to selected
infant formula products in Japan and recently in Europe to provide a
direct dietary source of DHA in infant formula thereby providing
optimal DHA levels and its associated benefits to infants. (JP 043411;
WO 9212711; EP 404058; US 4670285). Unfortunately, cow's milk is
devoid of DHA and has only very modest amounts of LNA.
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Consequently, the recommended dietary levels of DHA for children
on mixed diets (see recommendations of the British Nutrition
Foundation; Recommendations for Intakes of Unsaturated Fatty Acids,
1992) cannot be fulfilled with cow's milk and associated dairy products
(cheeses, ice-creams, etc.). This is particularly important at a
development stage where there is active learning, information
processing, and intellectual development.
Efforts have been made to increase dietary intake of DHA by
adding or incorporating DHA into various foods. Methods have been
developed to increase the level of omega-3 fatty acids in the flesh of
beef cattle (US 5290573), sows (US 5106639; DE 3808885; Taugbol, O. et
al., Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. A., 40(6): 437-443, 1993), poultry (US
5012761; JP 04271754; US 5133963; US 5069903), and eggs (KR 9311396;
US 5069903). DHA has also been added as a dietary supplement to
infant formula as discussed above, and milk. Sources of DHA for
supplementing milk or infant formula include fish products, fatty
acid containing microbial oils (US 5374657; US 5397591; US 5407957), or
fatty acids extracted from a mixture of egg yolk and coconut oil (US
4670285).
Researchers have been able to increase DHA content in the
expressed milk of humans (Harris, W.S. et al., Am. j. Clin. Nutr. 40(4):
780-785, 1984; Henderson, R.A., Lipids, 27(11): 863-869, 1992; US
5069903), sows (Taugbol, O. et al., Zentralbl, Veterinarmed. A. 40(6):
437-443, 1993), and rats (Yonekubo, A., et al. J. Nutr. 123(10): 1703-1708,
1993). However, researchers have had difficulty obtaining significant
levels of DHA in cow's milk. (Hebeisen, D.F., et al. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr.
Res., 63(3): 229-233, 1993).
A method, a feed additive and a feed to increase DHA content in
expressed milk of dairy cattle has been disclosed by the present
inventors in PCT Patent Application PCT/CA97/00430 published as
WO 97/49297 and in Wright, T.; McBride, B. ; and Holub, B, World
Rev. Nutr. Diet 83: 160-165, 1998. The disclosed feed additive
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included blood meal, however, there is a perception by some in the
public and industry that blood meal in cattle feed could be linked with
mad cow disease or bovine spongiform encephAlopathy (BSE).
Therefore, there is a demand for a feed additive which increases DHA
content in expressed milk in dairy cattle, but does not contain blood
meal.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present inventors have found that DHA (docosahexaenoic
acid) is expressed in the milk of dairy cattle fed a novel feed additive
containing DHA, and inhibitors of microbial degradation of DHA in
the rumen of the cattle and which does not contain blood meal. The
feed additive does not affect the ability of the cattle to digest the feed by
normal symbiotic digestion. The feed additive is also palatable to the
cattle, and therefore food consumption is not decreased. As a result,
the health of the cattle is maintained and their productivity is not
reduced.
The present inventors found that when dairy cattle are fed the
feed additive throughout lactation, the levels of DHA in the expressed
milk are between 0.14% and 0.99% of the long chain fatty acids in the
milk. These DHA levels are as high as, or exceed the World Health
Organization recommended levels of DHA in milk (0.2 to 0.3%). A
feed additive containing only fish meal with DHA resulted in
amounts of DHA far below the levels obtained with the novel feed
additive of the present invention.
Broadly stated, the present invention relates to a feed additive
for dairy cattle and which comprises a source of DHA and inhibitors of
microbial degradation of DHA in the rumen of dairy cattle and does
not contain blood meal. The source of DHA and the inhibitors of
microbial degradation of DHA are present in the feed in an amount
sufficient to enhance the concentration of DHA in the milk of dairy
cows fed with feed containing the additive. In an embodiment of the
invention, the source of DHA is fish meal. The inhibitors of microbial
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degradation comprise feather meal. In one embodiment the inhibitors
of microbial degradation consists of feather meal. Preferably the feed
additive comprises an amount of feather meal sufficient to increase
the concentration of DHA in milk from cattle consuming the feed
additive. The invention also contemplates a feed containing the feed
additive.
The invention also relates to a method of producing milk in
dairy cattle which is enriched for DHA comprising feeding dairy cattle
a diet containing a feed additive of the invention for a period of time
longer than one day and preferably for at least about 14 days and
milking the dairy cattle to obtain milk enriched for DHA.
The invention further relates to expressed milk from dairy
cattle enriched for DHA which is produced by feeding cattle a diet
containing a feed additive of the invention for a period of more than
one day, preferably at least about 14 days, and milking the dairy cattle
to obtain milk enriched for DHA. The expressed milk of the
invention preferably containing about 0.2% to 0.5% of DHA. The
invention further relates to a DHA-enriched dairy product produced
using the expressed milk of the invention. The DHA-enriched dairy
product is preferably selected from the group consisting of cheese,
yogurt, cream, ice-creams, powdered milk, evaporated milk, infant
milk and butter.
In one embodiment, the invention relates to the use of feather
meal as an inhibitor of microbial degradation of DHA in the rumen of
dairy cattle in an amount sufficient to increase the concentration of
DHA in milk. In a preferred embodiment the feather meal is added to
the feed for dairy cattle.
Other features and advantages of the present invention will
become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be
understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific
examples while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention
are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and
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modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become
apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT
As hereinbefore mentioned, the present invention relates to a
feed additive for dairy cattle which comprises a source of DHA, and
inhibitors of microbial degradation of DHA in the rumen of dairy
cattle with no blood meal. Preferably, these components are present in
an amount sufficient to increase the concentration of DHA in the milk
of dairy cows fed a diet containing the additive. "An amount
sufficient" as used herein would be understood by a person skilled in
the art to be the amount which results in an increased concentration of
DHA in milk.
The DHA in the feed additive may be a DHA concentrate
containing 5 to 98% DHA, or it may be a component of an extract from
a source known to contain DHA; for example, it may be a component
of an extract derived from fish, such as fish meal. DHA concentrates
may be obtained from commercial sources for example, from Life Plus
International, Inc. (Batesville, Arkansas), Norsk Hydro As, and
Nippon Oils and Fats KK. Alternate sources of DHA could also
include algal biomass or bioengineered oil-seed corps containing DHA.
Indeed any source of DHA which is palatable to cattle and which does
not compromise the taste qualities of milk produced may be used.
According to an embodiment of the invention, the feed additive
comprises feather meal and fish meal containing DHA. The fish meal
may be made from mackeral, caplin, talapia, manhaden, or herring,
preferably herring, and contains an amount of DHA which will
provide about 5 to 12% DHA by weight of the total fatty acids in the
feed as described herein. Fish meal may be selected which has 76.7%
protein and total fat content of 8.2% (dry measurement basis). The
feather meal may be made from the feathers of broiler chickens,
although the feathers of any foul including turkeys and geese, may be
used. Feather meal may be selected which has 93.9% protein, and a
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total fat content of 2.6% (dry measurement basis). It will be appreciated
that the fish meal and feather meal may be obtained from commercial
sources for example, Ralston Purina, Shurgain, Masterfields, ADM &
Purina Mills.
In a preferred embodiment, the feed additive contains 15 to 60%
feather meal, preferably 15 to 20% by weight of the total feed additive;
and 15 to 60% fish meal, preferably 50 to 55% by weight of the total feed
additive.
The feed additive may contain a carbohydrate fraction such as
soft white wheat or corn. Preferably the feed additive contains soft
white wheat. However, the feed additive may not contain blood meal.
The feed additive may be added to a basal feed which may
contain a carbohydrate fraction, a protein fraction, a lipid fraction
and/or a vitamin/mineral fraction. Examples of components in
carbohydrate fractions include corn silage, alfalfa hay, Timothy hay,
wheat straw, barley grain, canola meal, oat grain, mixed straw, and
corn. Typical components in the vitamin/mineral fraction include
magnesium oxide, limestone, potassium chloride, sodium chloride,
and a trace mineral supplement, containing zinc, copper, manganese,
selenium, vitamins A, D and E. Commercial sources of these
components are Ralston Purina, Shurgain, Masterfields, ADM &
Purina Mills. Typical protein feeds include soybean meal, corn gluten
meal, distillers dried grains, and meat meal. Typical lipid feeds
including tallow, fast food waste, and megalac (Church & Dwight Co.).
The feed containing the feed additive may be pelleted for
feeding to dairy cattle, or the feed additive and basal feed may be fed to
the cattle in a total mixed ration or as separate ingredients.
In an embodiment of the invention a feed is provided
comprising (a) a basal feed containing 2 to 10%, preferably 5-7%, mixed
straw; 40 to 55%, preferably 45 to 47% corn silage; 35 to 50%, preferably
42 to 45% high moisture corn, and 2-4% of a vitamin/mineral fraction,
each percentage being a percentage of the total weight of the basal feed;
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and (b) a feed additive comprising 1 to 7% feather meal, and 1 to 13%
herring meal, each percentage being a percentage of the total weight of
the feed (dry weight basis). In a preferred embodiment of the
invention, the feed additive comprises about 3.4%, feather meal and
about 6.2% herring meal, each percentage being a percentage of the
total weight of the feed (dry weight basis). In a more preferred
embodiment, the feed additive comprises about 1.0% feather meal and
about 1.9% herring meal, each percentage being a percentage of the
total weight of the feed (dry weight basis).
As illustrated in the examples herein, the use of a feed additive
comprising feather meal and a source of DHA such as fish meal
provides milk with an increased concentration of DHA thereby
avoiding the concerns (mad cow disease, BSE) and further cost
associated with blood meal.
Accordingly, the invention also relates to the use of feather
meal as an inhibitor of microbial degradation of DHA in the rumen of
dairy cattle. The use of feather meal is characterized in that the feather
meal is added to the feed for dairy cattle. According to a preferred
embodiment, the use is characterized in that an amount sufficient to
enrich milk from dairy cattle with DHA is added to feed additive,
which itself may be added to cattle feed.
The invention also relates to a method of producing milk in
dairy cattle which is enriched for DHA comprising feeding the dairy
cattle a diet containing the feed additive of the invention for a period
of at least about 7 days, and milking the dairy cattle to obtain milk
enriched for DHA. The cattle may be fed a basal feed containing the
feed additive, or the feed additive and basal feed may be fed to the
cattle in a total mixed ration or as separate ingredients.
The cattle are preferably fed throughout lactation, and for a
time longer than one day, preferably for at least 14 days, and more
preferably 17 days, in order to obtain expressed milk with a DHA
content which is greater than 0.2 % of long chain fatty acids in the
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milk. Typically the cattle are fed the feed additive (which may be part
of a basal feed) twice daily. The amount of feed additive given to the
cattle ranges from 600 grams to 7.5 kg per animal per day.
The method of the invention for producing expressed milk
enriched for DHA may be applied to any breed of dairy cattle, for
example, Ayshire, Guernsey, Holstein, Jersey, Brown Swiss, Dutch
Belted, Canadienne and Milking Shorthorn. It will be appreciated that
the method may also be applied to other ruminant species such as
sheep and goats to produce expressed milk enriched for DHA.
The expressed milk from dairy cattle enriched for DHA
produced by a method of the invention contains levels of DHA
typically in the range of 0.14 to 0.99% of long chain fatty acids in the
milk. These levels are as high as, or higher than found in human
expressed milk. The DHA content of expressed milk obtained using
the method of the invention meets or exceeds the World Health
Organization recommended levels of DHA in milk (0.2 to 0.3%). The
taste of the milk enriched for DHA produced by the method of the
invention is not altered and it is therefore suitable for human
consumption and concern about transference of mad cow disease and
BSE are avoided by not including blood meal. Further, the method
achieves these concentrations of DHA in milk using only feather meal
as the inhibitor of DHA degradation in the rumen.
It will be appreciated that other DHA-enriched dairy products
can be produced by using the method described herein. For example,
cheese, yogurt, cream, ice-creams, powdered milk, evaporated milk,
infant formula, and butter enriched for DHA may be produced using
the method of the invention.
The milk and dairy products of the present invention enriched
for DHA are nutritionally superior products to conventional milk
products. The milk and dairy products may be of particular benefit
with respect to the various factors for brain development, visual
acuity, and cardiovascular disease. The benefits of the invention also
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extend beyond the production of DHA-enriched food products for
human consumption. For example, dairy cattle that are fed with a feed
of the invention can be expected to exhibit improved health effects
associated with omega-3 fatty acids since DHA is an essential nutrient
for growth, development, and neuronal functioning in the animals.
The following non-limiting examples are illustrative of the
present invention:
EXAMPLES
Example 1
DHA Production with Three Different Levels of Supplement
Containing Fish Meal, Feather Meal and Blood Meal
Six multiparous Holstein dairy cows post-peak lactation were
assigned at random to a Latin square design, with a 3 x 2 factorial
arrangement of treatment. The Latin square was balanced for residual
effects. The treatments were: Three dietary levels of a custom rumen-
undegradable protein supplement, and two different feed intake levels
of a custom rumen protein basal ration. The length of each of the six
periods was 21 days. Each 21 day period was divided into three phases:
(1) 7 days for treatment adaptation and ad libitum intake, (2) 14 days
for restricted or ad libitum feed intake (depending on treatment), and
(3) the final five days of phase (2) were used for data collection, when
relevant measures were recorded.
The cows were fed twice daily in equal amounts at
approximately 0600 and 1400 hours. The milking was done twice daily
at 0500 and 1600 hours. Individual milk samples were taken from both
the morning and afternoon milking, and later pooled based on
production, to obtain a representative daily sample from each cow.
Tables 1 and 2 show the composition of the basal ration and the
custom feed supplement respectively. The protein supplement was
added to the basal ration at three levels of total intake (dry matter
basis): Low 4.5%, Medium 14.9%, and High 29.1%, to obtain the three
levels of protein supplementation. Table 3 shows the amount of
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Feather meal, Blood meal, and Herring Meal in the three supplement
levels, as a percent of feed.
Table 1. Low Crude Protein Ration
Ingredient % of Ration DM Basis
Mixed Straw 6.3
Corn Silage 46.0
High Moisture Corn 44.3
Mineral and Vitamin Mix 3.1
i ame t. ingrealents m urotem Supplement
Component Percent of Supplement (As
Fed)
Soft White Wheat 25
Feather meal 22.8
Blood meal 9.5
Herring Meal 42.7
Table 3. Ingredients in Protein Supplement as a Percent of Diet.
Supplement Percent of Percent of Percent of Herring
Level Feather Meal Blood Meal Meal
In Feed In Feed In Feed
LOW 1.03 0.43 1.92
MEDIUM 3.36 1.40 6.23
HIGH 6.63 2.76 12.56
No ill effects were observed in animals consuming the feed
supplement. Table 4 shows the DHA content (% long chain fatty acids
in the milk) in expressed milk two weeks after the cows first started
consuming the feed. Milk production and feed consumption were
similar to production/consumption observed when the cows were fed
conventional feeds.
An omega-3 fatty acid analysis was carried out on the feed
containing the protein supplement. DHA, EPA, DHA+EPA, and total
omega-3 in the feed were 6.5, 4.3, 10.8, and 12.9 %, respectively, of total
fatty acids in the feed.
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Table 4. Effects of Custom feed supplement on DHA levels in milk.
Supplement DHA (ls mean; Standard ErrorMain Effect
Level % P-
of long chain Value
fatty
acids)
LOW 0.15 0.02 0.0001
MEDIUM 0.28 0.02 0.0001
HIGH 0.35 0.02 0.0001
Example 2
Fish meal Supplement Alone
Pelleted fish meal was fed to 5 Holstein cows for three weeks.
An identical ration, but without fish meal, was fed to 5 control cows
for comparison purposes. The ration was the low crude protein ration
of Table 2. Fish meal was fed to the cows at a level of 1.92% of the diet.
No blood meal or feather meal were fed to the treatment cows.
Milk samples were taken for fatty acid analysis on day zero from
all cows, when no fish meal had been fed to either group. Milk
samples were subsequently taken on day 21 from all cows when five
had consumed fish meal. Results were compared between groups for
both days. Results for EPA and DHA are expressed on a percent fatty
acid basis of all long chain fatty acids, and are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Results of Fish meal Experiment.
of long chain Fish meal No Fish meal Significance
FA
Day 0
EPA 0.032 0.033 N S
DHA 0.020 0.020 NS
Day 21
EPA 0.041 0.032 N S
DHA 0.061 0.036 0.01
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There was no significant difference between control and fish
meal groups for concentration of EPA, but there was a significant
difference between the groups for DHA concentration in milk at day
21.
The mean concentration of DHA from the fish meal
supplemented cows in this experiment is significantly less that the 0.15
level reported in Example I for the equivalent level of fish meal
supplementation. This is presumably due to the lack of inhibitors in
the feed of microbial degradation of DHA in the rumen of the dairy
cattle.
Example 3
DHA Production with Three Different Levels of Supplement
Containing Fish Meal and Feather Meal
This experiment was designed as a 6 x 6 Latin square (six cows x
six periods), balanced for residual effects, with 21 day periods. There
was a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatment. The treatments were:
three dietary levels each for two different rumen-undegradable protein
(RUP) supplements. Each 21 day period was divided into three phases:
(1) 7 days for treatment adaptation and ad libitum intake of prescribed
dietary treatment; (2) days 8 - 21 for ad libitum feed intake and (3) days
17-21 of phase (2) were used for data collection, when relevant
measures were recorded.
The cows were fed twice daily in equal amounts at
approximately 0600 and 1400 hours. The milking was done twice daily
at 0500 and 1600 hours. Individual milk samples were taken from
both the morning and afternoon milking, and later pooled based on
production, to obtain a representative daily sample from each cow.
Table 6 shows the composition of the basal ration which all
cows received. Tables 7 and 8 show the composition of the respective
rumen-undegradable protein feed supplements used in the
treatments. The protein supplements were added to the basal ration at
three levels of total intake (dry matter basis): Low 3.75%, Medium
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11.75% and High 27.0%, to obtain three levels of protein
supplementation.
Table 6. Basal Diet
Ingredient % As Fed
Straw 4.0
Corn Silage 60.6
High moisture com grain 33.6
Mineral/ Vitamins O,g
Salt 0.2
Ground Lime I 0.7
Table 7. Supplement: Feather Meal Based
Ingredient % As Fed
Wheat 25
Feather Meal 60
Herring Meal I 15
Table 8. Supplement: Fish Meal Based
Ingredient . % As Fed
Wheat 25
Feather Meal 15
Herring Meal I 60
No ill effects were observed in animals consuming the feed
supplement. Table 9 shows the milk and milk solids yield (kg/day) for
milk, protein, fat and lactose, for each of three different supplement
levels. Tables 10 shows the percent of protein, fat, lactose and DHA in
the respective expressed milk samples. DHA levels are given as a
percentage of long chain fatty acids.
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Table 9. Milk and Milk Solids Yield (Kg/d)
Fish Feather P-Value
Meal Meal
Supplement Supplement
3. 11.75 27.0 3.75 11757527.0 SE uppl.Level
~ S
Milk 23.7 22.8 23.8 23.2 21.3 22.4 .88 0.15 .27
Protein0.72 0.73 0.78 0.66 0.64 0.70 .03 .002 .12
F a 0.70 0.59 0.56 0.57 0.64 0.57 .04 .44 .21
t
Lact 1.07 1.01 1.05 1.06 0.96 1.01 .04 .43 .16
Table 10. Milk Composition (%)
Fish Feather P-Value
Meal Meal
Supplement Supplement
3.75 11.75 27.0 ~ 11.75 27.Q SE uppl.Level
S
Protein3.11 3.29 3.30 2.89 3.02 3.15 .06 .001 .Ol
F a 3.00 2.63 2.42 2.54 3.00 2.51 .18 .99 .13
t
Lact 4.51 4.37 4.45 4.56 4.51 4.49 .04 .06 .10
DHA* 0.38 0.68 0.73 0.28 0.30 0.28 .04 .0001.0005
w o, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
_
", ... ......6 ~......, . .... y ~,,.,.J
The feather meal based supplement resulted in DHA transfer
from diet to expressed milk but changing dietary levels of the
supplement did not result in an increased level of DHA in the
expressed milk of dairy cattle. The fish meal based supplement,
however, did result in a much increased level of DHA in the expressed
milk over the three dietary levels. The above example shows that a
feed additive comprising a source of DHA and just feather meal, is
sufficient to enhance transfer of DHA from diet to the expressed milk
of dairy cattle.
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Table 11. Comparison of Data for Examples I and III
Supplement
Level Example Fish-III Feather-IIISE P-Value
I
Low 34.4 39.6 86.6 2.9 0.0001
Medium 20.2 17.5 44.1 7.4 0.0001
High 10.9 8.9 14.5 7.4 0.0001
For comparison purposes, these data effectively demonstrate the
abilities of the three supplements. Example I and the fish-based
supplement of Example III are reasonably similar in transfer efficiency.
The high levels of DHA in the milk from the fish-based supplement of
Example III are a reflection of greater DHA present in the supplement
compared to the similar levels of Example I. The feather-based
supplement of Example III has excellent transfer efficiency (87%) at the
low level which is probably a reflection of the inhibitory nature of the
feather meals.
Having illustrated and described the principles of the invention
in a preferred embodiment, it should be appreciated to those skilled in
the art that the invention can be modified in arrangement and detail
without departure from such principles. We claim all modifications
coming within the scope of the following claims.
All publications, patents and patent applications are herein
incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each
individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically
and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its
entirety.
