Note: Descriptions are shown in the official language in which they were submitted.
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FUEL COMPOSITION
Field of the Invention
The present invention is in the field of fuel
formulations, particularly gasoline-type fuel
formulations for spark ignition internal combustion
engines.
Background of the Invention
Fuels are conventionally produced by refining crude
oil (petroleum). This typically involves separating
various fractions of crude oil by distillation. One such
fraction is naphtha, which is a volatile liquid fraction
distilled between the light gaseous components of crude
oil and the heavier kerosene fraction. Naphtha contains
a mixture of hydrocarbons (linear alkanes, branched
alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons) having a
boiling point between about 30 C and about 200 C. The
density of naphtha is typically 750-785 kg/m3. Naphtha
has many uses, one of which is as an automotive fuel.
Whereas the longer chain molecules in gasoil have a
high cetane number and can be blended into diesel,
naphtha has historically not been used in gasoline, or
has only been used in low amounts, because of its poor
octane rating. This has been the case despite the fact
that naphtha has comparable distillation properties to
those of gasoline.
Renewable fuels derived from biological matter
(\biofuelsr) are increasingly being used as a more
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Due to an
increase in production volumes of renewable naphtha in
recent years, it would be advantageous to be able to
blend renewable naphtha in gasoline, particularly in high
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blend ratios. The use of higher blend ratios of
renewable naphtha has the advantage of enabling higher
CO2 reduction and can help to meet regulated reduction
targets, as stipulated in the Paris Agreement (2016). At
the same time, it would be desirable to be able to
formulate gasoline fuel compositions which comply with
existing gasoline fuel specifications, such as, but not
limited to, EN228 and North American specifications, e.g.
ASTM D4814-13b, US Conventional, CaRFG Phase 3, Federal
RFG Phase II, CAN/CGSB-3.5.
W02017/093203 discloses a liquid fuel composition
for a spark ignition internal combustion engine
comprising (a) gasoline blending components, (b) Fischer-
Tropsch derived naphtha at a level of up to 50% v/v and
(c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level less than 50% v/v.
US2009/300971 discloses a naphtha composition
produced from a renewable feedstock wherein the naphtha
has a boiling range of about 70 F to about 400 F and a
specific gravity at 20 C of from about 0.680 to about
0.740. In one embodiment, the renewable naphtha is used
as an alternative gasoline fuel for combustion engines
when blended between 1% and 85% by volume with ethanol.
W02018/234187 relates to a process for the
production of renewable base oil, diesel and naphtha from
a feedstock of biological origin. However there is no
disclosure in W02018/234187 of specific gasoline fuel
formulations containing the renewable naphtha produced in
said process.
W02018/069137 relates to a process for preparing an
alkylate gasoline composition comprising renewable
naphtha and iso-octane and iso-pentane. The Examples of
the alkylate gasolines in Table 2 contain up to 5 vol% of
renewable naphtha. The gasoline compositions in this
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application do not contain oxygenates and the focus is on
small utility engines used in various portable gasoline
powered tools, such as chainsaws and lawnmowers.
US9885000B2 relates to a renewable hydrocarbon
composition obtainable from a renewable biological
feedstock. The composition can be used as a fuel
component.
W02009/148909 relates to a method for producing a
naphtha product from a renewable feedstock. The
renewable naphtha product can be used as fuel, or as fuel
blend stock.
While the low octane number of renewable naphtha
would normally severely restrict its blendability in
gasoline to low levels, it has now been found by the
present inventors that renewable naphtha can be included
in, for example, ethanol-containing gasoline fuel
compositions in surprisingly and significantly high blend
ratios of renewable naphtha, e.g. high blend ratios of
renewable naphtha to ethanol, while still meeting
gasoline fuel specifications, such as but not limiting to
EN228 and North American specifications, e.g. ASTM D4814-
13b, US Conventional, CaRFG Phase 3, Federal RFG Phase
II, CAN/CGSB-3.5.
Summary of the Invention
According to a first aspect of the present invention
there is provided a gasoline fuel composition for a spark
ignition internal combustion engine comprising (a)
gasoline blending components, (b) renewable naphtha at a
level of 10 to 30% v/v and (c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at
a level of 20% v/v or less,
wherein the gasoline blending components comprise (a)
from 0% v/v to 30% v/v of alkylate, (b) from 0% v/v to
15% v/v of isomerate, (c) from 0% v/v to 20% v/v of
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catalytic cracked tops (CCT) naphtha; and (d) from 20%
v/v to 40% v/v of heavy reformate, wherein the total
amount of alkylate, isomerate, catalytic cracked tops
(CCT) naphtha and heavy reformate is at least 50% v/v,
based on the gasoline fuel composition,
and wherein the gasoline fuel composition meets the EN228
fuel specification.
According to another aspect of the present invention
there is provided a process for preparing a liquid fuel
composition comprising blending (a) gasoline blending
components, (b) renewable naphtha at a level from 10% v/v
to 30% v/v and (c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level of
20% v/v or less,
wherein the gasoline blending components comprise (a)
from 0% v/v to 30 % v/v of alkylate, (b) from 0% v/v to
15% v/v of isomerate, (c) from 0% v/v to 20% v/v of
catalytic cracked tops (CCT) naphtha; and (d) from 20%
v/v to 40 % v/v of heavy reformate, wherein the total
amount of alkylate, isomerate, catalytic cracked tops
(CCT) naphtha and heavy reformate is at least 50% v/v
based on the gasoline fuel composition,
and wherein the gasoline fuel composition meets the EN228
specification.
The present invention enables the use of renewable
naphtha at significantly high blend ratios in gasoline
and thereby provides a significant new outlet for
renewable naphtha fuel.
It has surprisingly been found by the present
inventors that by blending the gasoline blending
components in certain concentrations and ratios, the
limitations normally experienced due to the low octane of
the renewable naphtha can be overcome.
In addition, the fuel compositions of the present
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invention have the advantage of meeting the requirements
of the EN228 fuel specification.
It has also surprisingly been found that the fuel
compositions of the present invention have higher RON
values than expected.
The liquid fuel compositions of the present
invention also provide excellent fuel economy, emissions
and power benefits, as required by the EN228
specification.
Brief Description of the Drawings
Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the
results shown in Table 6.
Figure 2 is a graphical representation of the
results shown in Table 7.
Detailed Description of the Invention
The liquid fuel composition of the present invention
comprises gasoline blending components, such as a
gasoline base fuel, suitable for use in an internal
combustion engine, a renewable naphtha at a level of from
10% v/v to 30 %v/v and (c) oxygenated hydrocarbon at a
level of 20 %v/v or less. Therefore the liquid fuel
composition of the present invention is a gasoline
composition.
The term "comprises" as used herein is intended to
indicate that as a minimum the recited components are
included but that other components that are not specified
may also be included as well.
The liquid fuel compositions herein comprise a
naphtha. The person skilled in the art would know what
is meant by the term "naphtha". Typically, the term
"naphtha" means a mixture of hydrocarbons generally
having between 5 and 12 carbon atoms and having a boiling
point in the range of 30 to 200 C. The liquid fuel
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compositions herein comprise a naphtha which is a
renewable naphtha, also known as a renewable naphtha
distillate, or biorenewable naphtha.
A renewable naphtha distillate may be produced as
part of the refining of renewable diesel. Renewable
diesel may be obtained from the processing of fatty acid
containing materials, such as animal fats, algae, and
plant material. Plant material may comprise both
vegetable based material, such as vegetable oils as well
as oils obtained from other plants, such as oils from
trees, e.g. tall oil. Renewable diesel and renewable
naphtha distillate may be obtained from the
hydrotreatment of fatty acids, and derivatives thereof,
such as triglycerides. The hydrotreatment of fatty acids
and derivatives thereof involves deoxygenation reactions,
such as hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), and may also involve
other hydroprocessing reactions, such as isomerisation
(for example hydroisomerisation) and cracking (for
example hydrocracking). When refining the renewable
diesel a renewable naphtha distillate is obtained. It
may have an initial boiling point (IBP) of about 30 C or
about 35 C and a final boiling point (FBP) of about 200 C
or about 205 C. The hydrocarbons present in that
distillation range usually range from those containing 4
or 5 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 or
12 carbon atoms.
Renewable fuels, such as renewable naphtha
distillate, are collected from resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, as opposed to
fossil fuels, such as petroleum gasoline, which are
derived from the refining of crude oil. A renewable
naphtha distillate may be obtained from the
hydrotreatment of fatty acids, and derivatives thereof
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present in fatty acid containing materials such as animal
fats and plant material, the hydrotreatment comprising
hydrodeoxygenation and hydroisomerisation, and comprise
the fraction with an IBP of 30 C, such as an IBP or 30 C
or higher and a FBP of 200 C, such as a FBP of 200 C or
lower. By the term renewable naphtha as used herein is
meant a naphtha fraction which contains bio-based carbon
atoms as determined according to ASTM method D6866-10
entitled "Standard Test Methods for Determining the
Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous samples
using Radiocarbon Analysis". The renewable content may
then be determined by isotopic distribution involving
14C, 13(S and/or 12(2 as described in ASTM D6866.
Because the paraffins of the renewable naphtha is
obtained from the processing of fatty acid containing
materials, such as animal fats and plant material, the
renewable naphtha distillate is paraffinic with very
little naphthenes and virtually no aromatics or
oxygenates.
Renewable naphtha distillate is mainly comprised of
paraffins (alkanes), which can be straight chain n-
paraffins or branched chain iso-paraffins. Renewable
naphtha may have 90 vol% or more C5-C12 paraffins, such as
95 vol% or more C5-C12 paraffins, or 98 vol% or more C5-C12
paraffins.
When the renewable naphtha distillate has been
produced as described above as part of the refining of
renewable diesel, it may comprise 30 vol% or more C5-C6
paraffins, such as 40 vol% or more.
In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the
renewable naphtha distillate also has a low content of
naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which are alkanes with at
least one non-aromatic ring structure, where the ring
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typically has 5 or 6 carbon atoms. Renewable naphtha
distillate may have 5 vol% or less of naphthenes, such as
1 vol% or less of naphthenes or 0.5 vol% or less of
naphthenes.
In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the
renewable naphtha distillate also has a very low content
of aromatics. Aromatic compounds contain a benzene ring
or other ring structure that is aromatic. Renewable
naphtha distillate may have 1 vol% or less of aromatics,
such as 0.5 vol% or less of aromatics, or 0.1 vol% or
less of aromatics.
In addition to mainly comprising paraffins, the
renewable naphtha distillate also has a very low content
of oxygenates. Oxygenates are organic molecules that
contain oxygen as part of their chemical structure, and
are usually employed as gasoline additives to reduce
carbon oxides and soot created during the burning of the
fuel. Common oxygenates include alcohols, ethers and
esters. Renewable naphtha distillate may have 1 vol% or
less of oxygenates, such as 0.5 vol% or less of
oxygenates, or 0.1 vol% or less of oxygenates, although
it is preferably essentially free of oxygenates.
The renewable naphtha used herein has a low octane
number, i.e. for example having a RON and/or a MON of
from 35 to 70, such as from 35 to 60 or from 35 to 50 or
from 35 to 45. It has surprisingly been found that
despite the low octane quality of the renewable naphtha,
it can be included in the gasoline fuel composition of
the present invention at a relatively high level, and the
final gasoline fuel composition has a higher than
expected octane number (RON).
The renewable naphtha distillate may have a vapour
pressure below 30 kPa, such as below 25 kPa, such as
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below 20 kPa. The vapour pressure of the renewable
naphtha may equally also be 10 kPa or higher, such as 15
kPa or higher.
In a preferred embodiment, the renewable naphtha
used herein comprises: 90 vol% or more of C5-C12
paraffins, 30 vol% or more C5-C6 paraffins, 5 vol% or
less of naphthenes, 1 vol% of less of aromatics, 1 vol%
or less of oxygenates.
The renewable naphtha distillate may have a boiling
range of from 30 to 200 C, such as 90 to 200 C, or 40 to
180 C.
The amount of renewable naphtha present in the
gasoline fuel composition of the present invention is
from 10 volt to 30 vol%, preferably from 15 volt to 25
volt, even more preferably from 18 volt to 22 vol%, and
especially 20 volt, based on the total fuel composition.
It is preferred to be able to add as much renewable
naphtha as possible in order to increase the renewable
part of the gasoline composition of the present
invention.
The renewable naphtha may comprise an iso-
paraffin/n-paraffin ratio of more than 1, such as more
than 1.2, for example between 1 and 2.
The renewable naphtha component of the present
invention can be prepared according to the methods
provided in W02018/069137, W02018/234187
US9885000B2 and W02009/148909, all of which are
incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
These references also provide further details of the
chemical and physical properties of the renewable naphtha
component.
The renewable naphtha component is commercially
available from Neste Oyj, Finland, under the tradename
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Neste renewable naphtha, also known as NexNaphtha. The
renewable naphtha component is also commercially
available from UPM under the tradename BioVerno Naphtha.
In the liquid fuel composition herein, the renewable
naphtha component of the present invention may include a
mixture of two or more renewable naphthas, or a mixture
of renewable naphtha with petroleum-derived naphtha
and/or Fischer-Tropsch derived naphtha.
By "Fischer-Tropsch derived" is meant that the
naphtha is, or is derived from, a product of a Fischer-
Tropsch synthesis process (or Fischer-Tropsch
condensation process). A Fischer-Tropsch derived naphtha
may also be referred to as a GTL (Gas-to-Liquid) naphtha.
Further details of GTL naphtha can be found in
W02017/093203, incorporated herein by reference in its
entirety.
It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the
art that the gasoline blending components may already
contain some naphtha components. The concentration of
the naphtha referred to above means the concentration of
naphtha which is added into the liquid fuel composition
as a blend with the gasoline blending components, and
does not include the concentration of any naphtha
components already present in the gasoline blending
components.
In addition to the renewable naphtha, the liquid
fuel composition of the present invention comprises
oxygenated hydrocarbon at a level of 20 vol.% or less,
preferably at a level of from 5 to 15% v/v, based on the
liquid fuel composition. In one embodiment, the
oxygenated hydrocarbon is present at a level of from 7 to
12% v/v, based on the liquid fuel composition. In
another embodiment, the oxygenated hydrocarbon is present
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at a level of from 10 to 15% v/v, based on the liquid
fuel composition.
It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the
art that the gasoline base fuel may already contain some
oxygenated hydrocarbon components. The concentration of
the oxygenated hydrocarbon referred to above means the
concentration of oxygenated hydrocarbon which is added
into the liquid fuel composition as a blend with the
gasoline base fuel, and does not include the
concentration of any oxygenated hydrocarbon components
already present in the gasoline base fuel.
Examples of suitable oxygenated hydrocarbons that
may be incorporated into the gasoline include alcohols,
ethers, esters, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and
their derivatives, and oxygen containing heterocyclic
compounds, and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment of
the present invention, the oxygenated hydrocarbon is
selected from alcohols, ethers and esters, and mixtures
thereof.
Suitable alcohols for use herein include methanol,
ethanol, propanol, 2-propanol, butanol, tert-butanol,
iso-butanol, 2-butanol and mixtures thereof. Suitable
ethers for use herein include ethers containing 5 or more
carbon atoms per molecule, e.g., methyl tert-butyl ether
and ethyl tert-butyl ether, and mixtures thereof. A
preferred ether for use herein is ethyl tert-butyl ether
(ETBE). Suitable esters for use herein include esters
containing 5 or more carbon atoms per molecule.
The oxygenated hydrocarbon is preferably selected
from alcohols, ethers and mixtures thereof. In one
preferred embodiment of the present invention, the
oxygenated hydrocarbon is selected from alcohols,
preferably at a level of from 0.1% v/v to 10% v/v, more
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preferably at a level of from 5% v/v to 10% v/v, based on
the total gasoline fuel composition. In another
embodiment of the present invention, the oxygenated
hydrocarbon is selected from ethers, preferably at a
level of from 0.1% v/v to 15% v/v, based on the total
gasoline fuel composition. In another preferred
embodiment of the present invention, the oxygenated
hydrocarbon is a mixture of alcohols and ethers, such as
a mixture of at least one alcohol and at least one ether,
preferably comprising from 5% v/v to 10% v/v of alcohol
and from 2% v/v to 5% v/v of ether, based on the gasoline
fuel composition.
A particularly preferred oxygenated hydrocarbon for
use herein is ethanol. Ethanol is preferably present in
the fuel compositions herein at a level of from 0.1% v/v
to 10% v/v, more preferably from 5% v/v to 10% v/v, based
on the total gasoline fuel composition. In one
embodiment of the present invention, ethanol is present
as the sole oxygenated hydrocarbon.
A particularly preferred ether for use as an
oxygenated hydrocarbon herein is ETBE. In one embodiment
of the present invention ETBE is present in the fuel
composition herein at a level of from 0.1% v/v to 15%
v/v, based on the total gasoline fuel composition. In
another embodiment of the present invention ETBE is
present as the sole oxygenated hydrocarbon.
In a particularly preferred embodiment of the
present invention, the oxygenated hydrocarbon herein is a
mixture of ethanol and ETBE comprising from 5% v/v to 10%
v/v of ethanol and from 2% v/v and 5% v/v of ETBE, based
on the total gasoline fuel composition.
When both the oxygenated hydrocarbon and the naphtha
are of renewable origin, the share of renewable content
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in the gasoline composition is increased. For example,
bio-ethanol may be used as the oxygenated hydrocarbon
herein.
The liquid fuel composition of the present invention
comprises gasoline blending components. The gasoline
blending components comprise (a) from 0% v/v to 30% v/v
of alkylate, (b) from 0% v/v to 15% v/v of isomerate; (c)
from 0% v/v to 20% v/v of catalytic cracked tops; and (d)
from 20% v/v to 40% v/v of heavy reformate, wherein the
total amount of alkylate, isomerate, catalytic cracked
tops and heavy reformate is at least 50% v/v, based on
the total fuel composition.
In the liquid fuel compositions of the present
invention, the gasoline blending components may be a
gasoline base fuel comprising the components (a), (b),
(c) and (d) as mentioned above.
Conventionally gasoline blending components are
present in a gasoline or liquid fuel composition in a
major amount, for example greater than 50% v/v of the
liquid fuel composition, and may be present in an amount
of up to 90% v/v, or 95% v/v, or 99% v/v, or 99.9% v/v,
or 99.99% v/v, or 99.999% v/v. Suitably, the liquid fuel
composition contains or consists essentially of the
gasoline blending components in conjunction with 10% v/v
to 30% v/v of renewable naphtha and oxygenated
hydrocarbon at a level of 20% v/v or less, and optionally
one or more conventional gasoline fuel additives, such as
specified hereinafter.
The gasoline blending components comprise from 0%
v/v to 30% v/v, preferably from 15 to 30 %v/v, more
preferably 15 to 25 %v/v, of alkylate, based on the total
gasoline fuel composition.
Alkylate is a complex combination of hydrocarbons
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produced by distillation of the reaction products of
isobutane with monoolefinic hydrocarbons usually ranging
in carbon numbers from C3 through C5. Alkylate is a
refinery stream and consists of predominantly branched
chain saturated hydrocarbons having carbon numbers
predominantly in the range of C7 through C12 and boiling
in the range of approximately 90 C to 220 C (194 F to
428 F)
The gasoline blending components comprise from 0%
v/v to 15% v/v, preferably from 5 to 10 vol%, of
isomerate, based on the total gasoline fuel composition.
Isomerate is a complex combination of hydrocarbons
obtained from catalytic isomerization of straight chain
paraffinic C4 through C6 hydrocarbons. Isomerate is a
refinery stream and consists predominantly of saturated
hydrocarbons such as isobutane, isopentane, 2,2-
dimethylbutane, 2-methylpentane, and 3-methylpentane and
boiling in the range of approximately 35 C to 220 C (95 F
to 428 F)
The gasoline blending components comprise from 20%
v/v to 40% v/v of heavy reformate, based on the total
gasoline fuel composition, provided that the total amount
of alkylate, isomerate, catalytic cracked tops and heavy
reformate in the final fuel composition is at least 50%
v/v, based on the total gasoline fuel composition.
In one embodiment of the present invention, the
gasoline blending components comprise from 30% v/v to 35%
v/v of heavy reformate, based on the total fuel
composition. In another embodiment of the present
invention, the gasoline blending components comprise from
20% v/v to 25% v/v of heavy reformate, based on the total
fuel composition.
Heavy reformate (or heavy catalytic reformed
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naphtha) is a complex combination of hydrocarbons
produced from the distillation of products from a
catalytic reforming process. It consists of
predominantly aromatic hydrocarbons having carbon numbers
predominantly in the range of C7 through 012 and boiling
in the range of approximately 90 C to 230 C (194 F to
446 F). Heavy Reformate is a refinery stream, rich in
aromatics and high octane component (typically 98-102
RON,
depending on requirements, type of unit and naphtha feed
and is used for mogas blending or as feedstock.
The gasoline blending components comprise from 0%
v/v to 20% v/v, preferably from 5% v/v to 20% v/v of
catalytic cracked tops, based on the total fuel
composition, provided that the total amount of alkylate,
isomerate, catalytic cracked tops and heavy reformate in
the final fuel composition is at least 50% v/v, based on
the total fuel composition.
CCT naphtha (or light catalytic cracked naphtha),
otherwise known as FCC naphtha (fluid catalytic cracked
naphtha), is a complex combination of hydrocarbons
produced by the distillation of products from a fluid
catalytic cracking process. Fluid catalytic cracking
(FCC) is widely used to convert the high-boiling point,
high molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum
crude oils into more valuable gasoline, olefinic gases
and other products. The FCC end products are cracked
petroleum naphtha, fuel oil and offgas. After further
processing for removal of sulfur compounds, the cracked
naphtha becomes a high-octane component of the refinery's
blended gasolines. The CCT naphtha/FCC naphtha consists
of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in
the range of C4 through C11 and boiling in the range of
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approximately minus 20 C to 190 C (-4 F to 374 F). CCT
naphtha/FCC naphtha is a refinery stream and contains a
relatively large proportion of unsaturated hydrocarbons,
depending on requirements, type of unit and naphtha feed
and is used for mogas blending or as feedstock. CCT
naphtha/FCC naphtha has the CAS no. 64741-55-5.
The liquid fuel composition according to the present
invention has a Research Octane Number (RON) in the range
of from 85 to 105, for example meeting the European
specifications of 95 or premium product grade of 98. The
liquid fuel composition used in the present invention has
a Motor Octane Number in the range of from 75 to 90.
Whilst not critical to the present invention, the
gasoline composition of the present invention may
conveniently include one or more optional fuel additives.
The concentration and nature of the optional fuel
additive(s) that may be included in the gasoline blending
components or the gasoline composition of the present
invention is not critical. Non-limiting examples of
suitable types of fuel additives that can be included in
the gasoline blending components or the gasoline
composition of the present invention include anti-
oxidants, corrosion inhibitors, detergents, dehazers,
antiknock additives, metal deactivators, valve-seat
recession protectant compounds, dyes, solvents, carrier
fluids, diluents and markers. Examples of suitable such
additives are described generally in US Patent No.
5,855,629.
Conveniently, the fuel additives can be blended with
one or more solvents to form an additive concentrate, the
additive concentrate can then be admixed with the
gasoline blending components or the gasoline composition
of the present invention.
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The (active matter) concentration of any optional
additives present in the gasoline blending components or
the gasoline composition of the present invention is
preferably up to 1% m/m, more preferably in the range
from 5 to 2000mg/kg, advantageously in the range of from
300 to 1500 mg/kg, such as from 300 to 1000 mg/kg.
As stated above, the gasoline composition may also
contain synthetic or mineral carrier oils and/or
solvents.
Examples of suitable mineral carrier oils are
fractions obtained in crude oil processing, such as
brightstock or base oils having viscosities, for example,
from the SN 500 - 2000 class; and also aromatic
hydrocarbons, paraffinic hydrocarbons and alkoxyalkanols.
Also useful as a mineral carrier oil is a fraction which
is obtained in the refining of mineral oil and is known
as "hydrocrack oil" (vacuum distillate cut having a
boiling range of from about 360 to 500 C, obtainable
from natural mineral oil which has been catalytically
hydrogenated under high pressure and isomerized and also
deparaffinized).
Examples of suitable synthetic carrier oils are:
polyolefins (poly-alpha-olefins or poly (internal
olefin)s), (poly)esters, (poly)alkoxylates, polyethers,
aliphatic polyether amines, alkylphenol-started
polyethers, alkylphenol-started polyether amines and
carboxylic esters of long-chain alkanols.
Examples of suitable polyolefins are olefin
polymers, in particular based on polybutene or
polyisobutene (hydrogenated or nonhydrogenated).
Examples of suitable polyethers or polyetheramines
are preferably compounds comprising polyoxy-C2-C4-
alkylene moieties which are obtainable by reacting C2-
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C60-alkanols, C6-C30-alkanediols, mono- or di-C2-C30-
alkylamines, C1-C30-alkylcyclohexanols or Ci-C30-
alkylphenols with from 1 to 30 mol of ethylene oxide
and/or propylene oxide and/or butylene oxide per hydroxyl
group or amino group, and, in the case of the polyether
amines, by subsequent reductive amination with ammonia,
monoamines or polyamines. Such products are described in
particular in EP-A-310 875, EP-A-356 725, EP-A-700 985
and US-A-4,877,416. For example, the polyether amines
used may be poly-C2-C6-alkylene oxide amines or
functional derivatives thereof. Typical examples thereof
are tridecanol butoxylates or isotridecanol butoxylates,
isononylphenol butoxylates and also polyisobutenol
butoxylates and propoxylates, and also the corresponding
reaction products with ammonia.
Examples of carboxylic esters of long-chain alkanols
are in particular esters of mono-, di- or tricarboxylic
acids with long-chain alkanols or polyols, as described
in particular in DE-A-38 38 918. The mono-, di- or
tricarboxylic acids used may be aliphatic or aromatic
acids; suitable ester alcohols or polyols are in
particular long-chain representatives having, for
example, from 6 to 24 carbon atoms. Typical
representatives of the esters are adipates, phthalates,
isophthalates, terephthalates and trimellitates of
isooctanol, isononanol, isodecanol and isotridecanol, for
example di-(n- or isotridecyl) phthalate.
Further suitable carrier oil systems are described,
for example, in DE-A-38 26 608, DE-A-41 42 241, DE-A-43
09 074, EP-A-0 452 328 and EP-A-0 548 617, which are
incorporated herein by way of reference.
Examples of particularly suitable synthetic carrier
oils are alcohol-started polyethers having from about 5
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to 35, for example from about 5 to 30, C3-C6-alkylene
oxide units, for example selected from propylene oxide,
n-butylene oxide and isobutylene oxide units, or mixtures
thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable starter
alcohols are long-chain alkanols or phenols substituted
by long-chain alkyl in which the long-chain alkyl radical
is in particular a straight-chain or branched C6-C18-
alkyl radical. Preferred examples include tridecanol and
nonylphenol.
Further suitable synthetic carrier oils are
alkoxylated alkylphenols, as described in DE-A-10 102
913.6.
Mixtures of mineral carrier oils, synthetic carrier
oils, and mineral and synthetic carrier oils may also be
used.
Any solvent and optionally co-solvent suitable for
use in fuels may be used. Examples of suitable solvents
for use in fuels include: non-polar hydrocarbon solvents
such as kerosene, heavy aromatic solvent ("solvent
naphtha heavy", "Solvesso 150"), toluene, xylene,
paraffins, petroleum, white spirits, those sold by Shell
companies under the trademark "SHELLSOL", and the like.
Examples of suitable co-solvents include: polar solvents
such as esters and, in particular, alcohols (e.g., t-
butanol, i-butanol, hexanol, 2-ethylhexanol, 2-propyl
heptanol, decanol, isotridecanol, butyl glycols, and
alcohol mixtures such as those sold by Shell companies
under the trade mark "LINEVOL", especially LINEVOL 79
alcohol which is a mixture of C7_9 primary alcohols, or a
C12-14 alcohol mixture which is commercially available).
Dehazers/demulsifiers suitable for use in liquid
fuels are well known in the art. Non-limiting examples
include glycol oxyalkylate polyol blends (such as sold
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under the trade designation TOLADm 9312), alkoxylated
phenol formaldehyde polymers, phenol/formaldehyde or Cl_
18 alkylphenol/-formaldehyde resin oxyalkylates modified
by oxyalkylation with C1-18 epoxides and diepoxides (such
as sold under the trade designation TOLADm 9308), and C1-
epoxide copolymers cross-linked with diepoxides,
diacids, diesters, diols, diacrylates, dimethacrylates or
diisocyanates, and blends thereof. The glycol
oxyalkylate polyol blends may be polyols oxyalkylated
with C1-4 epoxides. The C1-18 alkylphenol phenol/-
formaldehyde resin oxyalkylates modified by oxyalkylation
with C1-18 epoxides and diepoxides may be based on, for
example, cresol, t-butyl phenol, dodecyl phenol or
dinonyl phenol, or a mixture of phenols (such as a
mixture of t-butyl phenol and nonyl phenol). The dehazer
should be used in an amount sufficient to inhibit the
hazing that might otherwise occur when the gasoline
without the dehazer contacts water, and this amount will
be referred to herein as a "haze-inhibiting amount."
Generally, this amount is from about 0.1 to about 20
mg/kg (e.g., from about 0.1 to about 10 mg/kg), more
preferably from 1 to 15 mg/kg, still more preferably from
1 to 10 mg/kg, advantageously from 1 to 5 mg/kg based on
the weight of the gasoline.
Further customary additives for use in gasolines are
corrosion inhibitors, for example based on ammonium salts
of organic carboxylic acids, said salts tending to form
films, or of heterocyclic aromatics for nonferrous metal
corrosion protection; antioxidants or stabilizers, for
example based on amines such as phenyldiamines, e.g., p-
phenylenediamine, N,N'-di-sec-butyl-p-phenyldiamine,
dicyclohexylamine or derivatives thereof or of phenols
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such as 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol or 3,5-di-tert-buty1-4-
hydroxy-phenylpropionic acid; anti-static agents;
metallocenes such as ferrocene; methylcyclo-
pentadienylmanganese tricarbonyl; lubricity additives,
such as certain fatty acids, alkenylsuccinic esters,
bis(hydroxyalkyl) fatty amines, hydroxyacetamides or
castor oil; and also dyes (markers). Amines may also be
added, if appropriate, for example as described in
W003/076554. Optionally anti-valve seat recession
additives may be used such as sodium or potassium salts
of polymeric organic acids.
The gasoline compositions herein can also comprise a
detergent additive. Suitable detergent additives include
those disclosed in W02009/50287, incorporated herein by
reference.
Preferred detergent additives for use in the
gasoline composition herein typically have at least one
hydrophobic hydrocarbon radical having a number-average
molecular weight (Mn) of from 85 to 20 000 and at least
one polar moiety selected from:
(Al) mono- or polyamino groups having up to 6
nitrogen atoms, of which at least one nitrogen atom has
basic properties;
(A6) polyoxy-C2- to -C4-alkylene groups which are
terminated by hydroxyl groups, mono- or polyamino groups,
in which at least one nitrogen atom has basic properties,
or by carbamate groups;
(A8) moieties derived from succinic anhydride and
having hydroxyl and/or amino and/or amido and/or imido
groups; and/or
(A9) moieties obtained by Mannich reaction of
substituted phenols with aldehydes and mono- or
polyamines.
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The hydrophobic hydrocarbon radical in the above
detergent additives, which ensures the adequate
solubility in the base fluid, has a number-average
molecular weight (Mn) of from 85 to 20 000, especially
from 113 to 10 000, in particular from 300 to 5000.
Typical hydrophobic hydrocarbon radicals, especially in
conjunction with the polar moieties (Al), (A8) and (A9),
include polyalkenes (polyolefins), such as the
polypropenyl, polybutenyl and polyisobutenyl radicals
each having Mn of from 300 to 5000, preferably from 500
to 2500, more preferably from 700 to 2300, and especially
from 700 to 1000.
Non-limiting examples of the above groups of
detergent additives include the following:
Additives comprising mono- or polyamino groups (Al)
are preferably polyalkenemono- or polyalkenepolyamines
based on polypropene or conventional (i.e., having
predominantly internal double bonds) polybutene or
polyisobutene having Mn of from 300 to 5000. When
polybutene or polyisobutene having predominantly internal
double bonds (usually in the beta and gamma position) are
used as starting materials in the preparation of the
additives, a possible preparative route is by
chlorination and subsequent amination or by oxidation of
the double bond with air or ozone to give the carbonyl or
carboxyl compound and subsequent amination under
reductive (hydrogenating) conditions. The amines used
here for the amination may be, for example, ammonia,
monoamines or polyamines, such as
dimethylaminopropylamine, ethylenediamine, diethylene-
triamine, triethylenetetramine or tetraethylenepentamine.
Corresponding additives based on polypropene are
described in particular in WO-A-94/24231.
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Further preferred additives comprising monoamino
groups (Al) are the hydrogenation products of the
reaction products of polyisobutenes having an average
degree of polymerization of from 5 to 100, with nitrogen
oxides or mixtures of nitrogen oxides and oxygen, as
described in particular in WO-A-97/03946.
Further preferred additives comprising monoamino
groups (Al) are the compounds obtainable from
polyisobutene epoxides by reaction with amines and
subsequent dehydration and reduction of the amino
alcohols, as described in particular in DE-A-196 20 262.
Additives comprising polyoxy-C2-C4-alkylene moieties
(A6) are preferably polyethers or polyetheramines which
are obtainable by reaction of C2- to C60-alkanols, C6- to
C30-alkanediols, mono- or di-C2-C30-alkylamines, C1-C30-
alkylcyclohexanols or C1-C30-alkylphenols with from 1 to
30 mol of ethylene oxide and/or propylene oxide and/or
butylene oxide per hydroxyl group or amino group and, in
the case of the polyether-amines, by subsequent reductive
amination with ammonia, monoamines or polyamines. Such
products are described in particular in EP-A-310 875, EP-
A-356 725, EP-A-700 985 and US-A-4 877 416. In the case
of polyethers, such products also have carrier oil
properties. Typical examples of these are tridecanol
butoxylates, isotridecanol butoxylates, isononylphenol
butoxylates and polyisobutenol butoxylates and
propoxylates and also the corresponding reaction products
with ammonia.
Additives comprising moieties derived from succinic
anhydride and having hydroxyl and/or amino and/or amido
and/or imido groups (A8) are preferably corresponding
derivatives of polyisobutenylsuccinic anhydride which are
obtainable by reacting conventional or highly reactive
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polyisobutene having Mn of from 300 to 5000 with maleic
anhydride by a thermal route or via the chlorinated
polyisobutene. Of particular interest are derivatives
with aliphatic polyamines such as ethylenediamine,
diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine or
tetraethylenepentamine. Such additives are described in
particular in US-A-4 849 572.
Additives comprising moieties obtained by Mannich
reaction of substituted phenols with aldehydes and mono-
or polyamines (A9) are preferably reaction products of
polyisobutene-substituted phenols with formaldehyde and
mono- or polyamines such as ethylenediamine,
diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine,
tetraethylenepentamine or dimethylaminopropylamine. The
polyisobutenyl-substituted phenols may stem from
conventional or highly reactive polyisobutene having Mn
of from 300 to 5000. Such "polyisobutene-Mannich bases"
are described in particular in EP-A-831 141.
Preferably, the detergent additive used in the
gasoline compositions of the present invention contains
at least one nitrogen-containing detergent, more
preferably at least one nitrogen-containing detergent
containing a hydrophobic hydrocarbon radical having a
number average molecular weight in the range of from 300
to 5000. Preferably, the nitrogen-containing detergent
is selected from a group comprising polyalkene
monoamines, polyetheramines, polyalkene Mannich amines
and polyalkene succinimides. Conveniently, the nitrogen-
containing detergent may be a polyalkene monoamine.
In the above, amounts (concentrations, % v/v, mg/kg
(ppm), % m/m) of components are of active matter, i.e.,
exclusive of volatile solvents/diluent materials.
The liquid fuel composition of the present invention
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can be produced by admixing the renewable naphtha and the
oxygenated hydrocarbon with the gasoline blending
components. Since the blending components to which the
renewable naphtha and the oxygenated hydrocarbon are
admixed are gasoline blending components, then the liquid
fuel composition produced is a gasoline composition.
The fuel composition of the present invention is
suitable for use in a spark-ignition internal combustion
engine, such as used in passenger cars. Hence, according
to another aspect of the present invention there is
provided the use of a gasoline composition as described
hereinabove for fuelling a spark ignition internal
combustion engine in a passenger car.
The fuel composition of the present invention is
also suitable for use in a spark-ignition internal
combustion engine, when used in the powertrain of a
hybrid electric vehicle, in particular a plug-in hydrbrid
electric vehicle (PHEV). Hence, according to another
aspect of the present invention there is provided the use
of a gasoline composition as described hereinabove for
fuelling a spark ignition internal combustion engine when
used in the powertrain of a hybrid electric vehicle, in
particular a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.
The fuel composition of the present invention has
been found to be particularly useful in reducing
particulate matter (PM) emissions. Hence according to
yet another aspect of the present invention there is
provided the use of a gasoline composition as described
hereinabove for reducing particulate matter emissions (PM
emissions) in a spark ignition internal combustion
engine, such as in a passenger car.
The invention is further described by reference to
the following non-limiting examples.
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Example 1
Several fuel blends were prepared having the
properties and compositions as shown in Table 1 below.
Fuel A was a standard refinery E10 gasoline market
fuel formulation (containing 10%v/v ethanol) meeting the
EN228 Class A specification.
Fuel B was an E20 gasoline fuel formulation
containing 20 %v/v ethanol and 20%v of renewable naphtha
(but not meeting the EN228 Class A specification due to
failing the oxygen specification which is 3.7%w max in
EN228).
Fuel C was a gasoline fuel formulation meeting the
EN228 Class A specification and containing 9 %v/v ethanol
and 20 %v/v of renewable naphtha.
Fuel D was a gasoline fuel formulation meeting the
EN228 Class A specification and containing 8% v/v ethanol
and 20% v/v of renewable naphtha.
The renewable naphtha used in Fuels B, C and D was
supplied by UPM under the tradename UPM BioVerno Naphtha.
The ethanol used in the Examples was bio-ethanol
supplied by Clariant under the tradename Sunliquid (RTM)
bioethanol (99.8%) denatured with 2% toluene.
The alkylate/isomerate/ETBE components used in the
Examples were supplied together as a mixture by Shell
Global Solutions under the tradename ASF.
The CCT naphtha (also known as FCC naphtha) used had
the CAS no. 64741-55-5.
The Heavy Reformate used had the CAS no. 64741-68-0.
The fuel analysis results in Table 1 below show that
renewable naphtha can be blended with the gasoline
blending components in certain concentrations/ratios to
give an EN228 compliant ethanol-containing fuel.
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Tablo 1
PT ,rties and lest EN Fuel A*1 Fuel B*2 Fuel C Fuel D
ition Method Cl A
HET\ 7 Reformate 30 33 23
(c,//v)
CCT naphtha 15 17 17
(Catalytic Cracked
Tops) (%v/v)
Ethanol (%v/v) 10 20 9 8
Renewable Naphtha 20 20 20
(%v/v)
Alkylate/Isomerate 12.8 18.1 27.3
(%v/v(3
ETBE (%v/v(3 0.1 2.2 2.9 4.7
Total ( /v) N/A 100 100 100
Visual Er, arance visual Clear & Clear & Clear & Clear
& Clear &
bright bright bright bright bright
Density at 15 C DIN _EN 720.0- 747.2 769.4 761.5 744.9
(kg/m3) ISO 775.0
12185
RON DIN EN 95.0 min 95.4 99.7 97.0 95.7
ISO 5164
MON DIN _EN 85.0 min 85.0 86.5 86.0 86.3
ISO 5163
DVPE (kPa) DIN ISO 45.0-60.0 57.7 45.9 50.2 51.9
13016-1
Sulfur (mg/kg) DIN EN 10.0 max <10 7 9 9
ISO
20884
Initial boiling point DIN _EN - 35.9 39.8 37.5 38.0
( C) ISO 3405
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Final boiling point DIN EN 210 max 198.2 187.8 -- 188.7 --
183.4
( C) ISO 3405
E70 (%v/v) DIN EN 22.0-50.0 47.4 33.5 35.3 39.8
ISO 3405
E100 (%v/v) DIN EN 46.0-72.0 57.2 57.4 46.3 52.1
ISO 3405
E150 (%v/v) DIN EN 75.0 min 85.5 82.1 81.5 85.7
ISO 3405
Olefins (%v/v) DIN EN 18.0 max 8.1 5.6 6.5 -- 7.1
ISO
22854
Aromatics (%v/v) DIN EN 35.0 max 27.8 30.4 32.0 -- 23.0
ISO
22854
Benzene (%v/v) ASTM D 1.00 max 0.9 0.30 0.32 0.34
6729
modified
L ontent (%m/m) DIN EN 3.7 max 3.6 7.0 3.5 3.7
13132
Re_Ldue (vol%) DIN EN 2 max 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
ISO 3405
GUM washed (mg/100mL) DIN EN 5 max <1 <1 <1 <1
ISO 6246
Oxidation Stability EN ISO 360 min > 1000 > 1000 -- > 1000 --
>1000
(min) 7536
r Corrosion EN ISO Class 1 - (ND) - (ND) 1 1
2160
Lower heating Value DIN 41.62 39.77 41.47 41.82
(MJ/kg) 51900-1
1. Fuel A is a standard refinery market fuel and therefore the fuel blending
details were
not available.
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2. Fuel B is an E20 blend and exceeds the current EN228 specification for the
mass fraction
of 3.7 %m/m, as the specification is designed for E10 fuels.
3. Supplied as a mixture containing Alkylate, isomerate and ETBE
ND = Not determined
N/A = Not Applicable
*Comparative examples
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As can be seen from Table 1 above, the RON
(measured) for Fuel C is 97 and the RON (measured) for
Fuel D is 96. This is surprising in view of the high
level of renewable naphtha which is present in the
formulations, and is greater than what would have been
expected from calculating the RON value using the
individual RON numbers of the components used within the
compositions (see Table 2 below). From Table 2 below, it
can be seen that the calculated RON value of Fuel C is
92, whereas the measured RON value is 97. It can also be
seen that the calculated RON value of Fuel D is 91,
whereas the measured RON value is 96.
Table 2
Component Vol% Vol% RON RON RON
Fuel Fuel neat blend blend
C D Fuel Fuel
C D
Heavy Reformate 33 23 106 35 24
CCT 17 17 93 16 16
Ethanol 9 8 109 10 9
Renewable Naphtha 20 20 57 11 11
Alkylate/Isomerate/ETBE 21 32 96 20 31
Sum RON blend 92 91
calculated
RON measured 97 96
Emissions And Power Performance Tests
Fuel A (E10), Fuel B (E20) and Fuel C (according to
the present invention) were tested in a gasoline single
cylinder engine manufactured by AVL to understand if Fuel
C would give comparable fuel consumption, pre-catalyst
emissions and power performance to standard E10 & E20
fuels. The engine specification details are set out in
Table 3 below.
Table 3: Engine Specification Details
Manufacturer AVL
T Gasoline Single
ype
Cylinder Engine
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Euro 6 Engine
Emissions Class
Hardware
4-valve pent roof
Combustion system
GDI, Otto cycle
Displacement 454 cm3 (82 mm/86
(bore/stroke) mm)
Compression Ratio 7-14
Piezo injector
Direct injection
pressure up to 200
Injection System bar
Port fuel
injection pressure
up to 4.5 bar
Ignition System Ignition coil
Engine Management
IAV GmbH - F12RE
System
Maximum Boost Pressure 3.0 bar
Maximum Exhaust
3.5 bar
Pressure
Maximum Engine Speed 6400 rpm
All the fuels were tested in two engine
configurations representing present and future engine
hardware. A wide range of engine conditions (full and
part load in steady state test conditions) were tested
for each configuration.
The pre-catalyst emissions were measured with a
Horiba Mexa 7100 system and fuel consumption was
determined using an AVL 735 Coriolis meter. In-cylinder
pressure measurements were taken using an AVL piezo-
electric GU22C sensor. The power output is related to
the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), which is
derived from the in-cylinder pressure measurements.
Tables 4 and 5 set out the full load operating conditions
for the gasoline direct injecton (GDI) configuration and
the port fuel injection (PFI) configuration,
respectively.
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Table 4: Operating Conditions for the Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)
Configuration
Engine Fr i (rpm) 130C 180C 230C 350C 450C
Maximum
1.45 2.CC 2.CC 2.CC 1.75
Pressure ( r)
Compress' J Ratio 9.5:1
Intake valve
:1/close timing
2.B/194.1
lmm valve lift
( ATDC
Exhaust valve
open/close timing
-214.4/-3.0
at lmm valve lift
( ATDC
Injection Timing
325/-285/-245/-205/-165
( ATDC
Injection Pressure
190
(bar
Ignition ( ATDC) -2.5 -2.5 -4.2 -7 -8.5
Lambda ( C) 1.0
Oil Temperature
87
( C)
Fuel Temperature
( C)
Coolant Temperature
8C
( C)
Intake Air
3C
Temperature ( C)
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Table 5: Operating conditions for the port fuel injection (PFI) configuration
Er441ne Speed (rpm) 130C 180C 2300 350C 4500
Ma,imum Boost
1.45 2.CC 2.00 2.CC 1.75
Pr 1r (bar)
E sion Ratio 9.5:1
Intke valve
open/close timing
2.8/194.1
at lmm valve lift
( ATDC
Exhaust valve
open/close timing
-214.4/-3.0
at lmm valve lift
( P,TDC
Injection Timing
-44C -44C -440 -40C -440
( ATDC
Injection Pressure
4.5
(bar)
Ignition ( ATDC) 1 -1 -0.9 -5.3 -8.1
Lambda ( C) 1.0
Oil Temperature
87
( C)
Fuel Temperature
( C)
Coolant
8C
Temperature ( C)
Intake Air
3C
Temperature ( C)
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Results
Tables 6 and 7 set out the IMEP results obtained for
the two engine configurations over a range of speeds at
full load engine operating conditions.
Table 6: IMEP Results for the Gasoline Direct Injection
(GDI) Configuration
Fuel A (E10) Fuel B (E20) Fuel C
Engine
IMEP (bar)
Speed (rpm)
1300 15.51 15.48 15.66
1800 20.20 20.27 20.26
2300 20.50 20.49 20.74
3500 21.40 21.77 21.46
4500 20.33 20.24 20.40
Table 7: IMEP results for the port fuel injection (PFI)
configuration
Fuel A (E10) Fuel B (E20) Fuel C
Engine
IMEP (bar)
Speed (rpm)
1300 15.01 14.51 14.20
1800 18.45 18.71 18.63
2300 19.27 19.27 19.24
3500 21.03 20.94 20.99
4500 20.14 19.94 20.12
The results set out in Table 6 and 7 are shown
graphically in Figures 1 and 2, respectively.
Tables 8 and 9 below set out the fuel consumption
and pre-catalyst emissions results obtained for the two
engine configurations at 1300 rpm.
Table 8: Fuels Consumption and Emissions Results for the
Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Configuration
Fuel A (E10) Fuel B (E20) Fuel C
Fuel Consumption
258.26 270.47 262.25
(g/kWh)
CO emissions 13.38
(g/kWh) 11.32 11.37
NOx emissions 15.66
(g/kWh) 15.34 15.34
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THC emissions 6.43
(g/kWh) 7.25 7.21
PN emissions
90.73 80.61 86.40
PM emissions
36.82 21.43 25.92
(mg/kWh)2
1 Particulate Number emissions
2 Particulate Matter emissions
Table 9: Fuel Consumption and Emissions Results for the
port fuel injection (PFI) configuration
Fuel A (E10) Fuel B (E20) Fuel C
Fuel Consumption
268.65 278.44 273.46
(g/kWh)
CO emissions
21.75 22.64 23.24
(g/kWh)
NOx emissions 16.05
(g/kWh) 15.41 15.95
THC emissions 8.23
(g/kWh) 8.63 8.21
PN emissions
104.73 96.82 116.03
PM emissions
41.41 25.80 31.33
(mg/kWh)2
1 Particulate Number emissions
2 Particulate Matter emissions
Discussion
The results for the IMEP for both engine
configurations (GDI & PFI) at the different engine speeds
show that Fuel C (fuel according to the present
invention) performs similarly to the conventional E10
(Fuel A) & E20 (Fuel B) fuel compositions.
For both engine configurations, Fuel C has a similar
fuel consumption performance to the conventional E10
(Fuel A) fuel composition. For E20 (Fuel B) it is lower
compared to E10 (Fuel A) due to the caloric values (lower
heating values) being different and effecting the fuel
consumption values.
For both engine configurations, the pre-catalyst
emissions (CO, NOx, THC) performance for Fuel C are
similar to the reference fuels A and B (E10 & E20).
Whilst PN emissions are on a comparable level for
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all three fuels, Fuel C appears to show beneficial
results for PM emissions compared to conventional E10
Fuel (Fuel A).
