Note: Descriptions are shown in the official language in which they were submitted.
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FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to the field of animal nutrition, and
more particularly to the control and alleviation of stress-induced
disorders in livestock, especially ruminants.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIOy
The effects of stress on cattle manifest themselves in a
variety of different ways. It is ~elieved to result in reduced
reproductive efficiency in dairy and beef cattle and to a reduction in
milk yields in dairy cattle, especially during the initial stages of
lactation. It is believed to contribute to pasture bloat and feedlot
bloat.
Some of the most serious stress effects in cattle are those
exhibited by calves after shipping. The stress is believed to depress
the calf's immune system, rendering it particularly susceptible to
disease. Typically, calves are shipped to sale lots immediately after
weaning, starting at an age of less than 20 weeks. During and after
shipping they are held in relatively close confinement with other
calves, so that they are exposed to disease risks and unfamiliar
environnents and feeds. It is also typical to cut off their feed and
water during transit (apart from a mandatory stop to feed and drink
every 48 hours). It is not uncommon that cattle develop what is known
as "shipping fever", which becomes evident some 7-10 days after
shipping, and often manifests itself in the form of a respiratory
disease oomplex. The calf may cough and wheeze, suffer loss of appetite
and even develop pneumonia.
BRIEF REFERENCE TO THE PRIOR ART
Previous attempts to counteract shipping fever in calves
have frequently involved the administration of antibiotics, to treat the
infections contracted. However, some doubt has been raised as to the
benefit and efficacy of such treatments. The effectiveness may be
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reduced because of the depressed state of the animal's immune system
and other body functions. Antibiotics use on calves may also be
undesirable for other reasons. Antibiotics are expensive. Antibiotics
may leave residues in meat, presenting potential health safety problems.
The administration of an antibiotic to a calf may lead to its
establishing a resistance to that antibiotic so that it cannot be used
effectively on the animal later. Further, strains of bacteria resistant
to antibiotics may be generated ~hich could present problems for humans.
Additionally, antibiotics interfere with the rumen micro-organisms and,
as a result, may cause digestive upsets.
Stressed cattle also exhibit a "dark cutter" effect which
is a darkening of the meat throughout the carcass observed after
slaughter. The "dark cutter" effect results in a significant decrease
in the value of the meat. Antibiotics have no discernible effect on
avoiding "dark cutter".
Vaccination of the calves against the commonest anticipated
infectious diseases is also used. This is less than optional, again
because of the stress-induced immune system depression. Even
vaccination of the calve~ to protect them against diseases in subsequent
months is best delayed until at three weeks after the shipping, to allow
the immune system the best chance of recovery.
Pre-conditioning of the calves prior to shipping, in an
attempt to prevent or alleviate shipping fever, is also practised. This
can involve special management of the animals prior to shipping, or the
use of various feed additives in the animal's diet prior to shipping.
Examples of special management are weaning a month prior to sale,
dehorning, castration and vaccination. Creep feeding is also widely
used.
Shipping fever is a complex of diseases which is not
ccmpletely understood. It has been observed that one of the most
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virulent of these diseases is caused by infectious bovine
xhinotracheitis virus. Orr et al. in the J. Anim Sci. l990; 68:2893-
2900, describe the results of trials to determine the changes in copper
and zinc levels in serum during market-transit stress and/or disease in
beef cattle. They noted sexum zinc decreases and sexum copper increases
in morbid calves and in calves pre-inoculated with infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis virus. The relationship between zinc and immunity is
well understood in both human and animal medicine~
Ln the present invention the inventor teaches the use of
chromium as a dietary supplement to counteract shipping fever. A
relationship between zinc and chrcmium has been observed experimentally
in mice (Schrauzer et al., 1986) but has not been documented in studies
of domestic animals. Chrcmium has also been related to insulin and is
sometimes described as a co-factor or potentiator of insulin in some
nonruminant species. Fox example, in a paper entitled "Studies on the
Essentialitv of Chromium for Ruminants", L.J. Samsell and J.W. Spears
of the ~epartment of Animal Scien oe , North Carolina State University,
determined the following:
"Chromium is essential for normal carbohydrate
and lipid metabolism in a number of non-
ruminant animal species. As a component of the
glucose tolerance factor, chrcmium facilitates
insulin action. Chromium supplementation has
also decreased serum cholesterol in a number of
studies. Ruminants differ from non-r~minants
in regard to (1) major substrates used for
energy storage and oxidation and (2) response
to insulin. Volatile fatty acids (acetate,
propionate and butyrate) produced duxing
microbial fermentation in the rumen provide the
major energy source for lipogenesis and
oxidative metabolism in ruminants. Most of the
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glucose required by ruminants is supplied by
gluconeogensis, and generally little glucose
is available for absorption in the small
intestine of ruminants. Responses to chromium
in ruminants may differ from those seen in non-
ruminants because of the major differences in
energy metabolism."
There has also been a discussion in the literature of the
effects of chrcmium in the diet of humans and some animals including
the possibility of toxicity depending on its chemical state and its
concentration. For example:
1. a paper by John F. Jaworski entitled "Environmental and
Nutritional Effects of Chromium" was published in 1984 by the
National Research Council of Canada.
2. M.M. Wang, E.A. Fox, B.J. St oe cker, C.E. Menendez and S.B. Chan,
published a paper entitled "Serum Cholesterol of Adults
Supplemented with Brewer's Yeast or Chromium Chloride" which
discusses the role of chrc~ium in human nutrition and health and
was published in Nutrition Research, Volume 9, 1989.
3. G.B. Jones and R.A. Buckley wrote a paper entitled "Level~s of
Chromiurn in Wheats and some other Animal Feedstuffs in
Australia", J.P. Sci. Fd Agric., 1977, 28, 265-268.
4. Richard A. Anderson wrote a paper entitled "Chromium" for the
U.S. Departrnent of Agriculture which discussed chrcrnium in animal
tissues and fluids.
5. C.D. Seaborn and B.J. Stoecker wr~te a paper entitled "Effects
of Starch, Sucrose, Fructose and Glucose on Chromium Absorption
J ~3 ~
and Tissue Concentrations in Obese and Lean Mice", 1989, American
Institute of Nutrition.
6. R.A. Anderson, N.A. Bryden, M.M. Polansky and P.A. Deuster wrote
a paper entitled "Exercise effects on chromium excretion of
trained and untrained men consumina a constan~ diet", Journal of
Applied Physiology 64: 249-252, 1988.
7. A paper entitled "First International Sym~osium on Metal Ions in
Bioloay and Medicine", Trace Elements in Medicine, Vol. 7, No. 2
1990.
8. J.J. Challem and R. Lewin wrote a paper entitled "Chromium: A
Little Nutrient with Bia Benefits", from Let's Live, March 1986.
9. E. Vuori and J. Kumpulainen wrote a paper entitled "A New Low
Level of Chromium in Human Liver and Spleen", 1987, Trace
Elements in Medicine, Vol.4, No. 2.
10. E.G. Offenbacher and F.X. Pi-Sunyer wrote a paper entitled
"Chromium in Human Nutrition", Ann. Rev. Nutr. 1988 8:543-63.
11. R. A. Anderson wrote a paper entitled "Chromium'', from Trace
Minerals in Foods, 1988.
12. M. Urberg, J. Benyi, and R. John wrote a paper entitled
"Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Nicotinic Acid and Chromium
Supplementation", The Journal of Family Practice, Vol. 27, No.
6:603-606, 1988.
13. M. Simonoff wrote a paper entitled "Chromium ~eficiency and
Cardiovascular Risk", Cardiovascular Research, 1984, 18, 591-
596.
14. M. Simonoff, Y. Llabador, C. Hamon, A. Mackenzie Peers and G. N.
Simonoff wrote a paper entitled "Low Plas~a Chromium in Patients
with Coronary Artery and Heart Diseases", Biological Trace
Element R~search, Vol. 6, 1984.
15. R.A. Anderson and A.S. Kozlovsky wrote a paper entitled "Chromium
Intake, Absorption and Excretion of Subiects Consumina Self~
Selected Diets", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 41,
June, 1985.
16. A. Yam~moto, O. Wada and H. Suzuki wrote a paper entitled
"Purification and Properties of Bioloaically Active Chr~nium
Complex from Bovine Colostrum", J.Nutr.1,18:39-45, 1988.
17. J. Felcman and M.L. Tristao Braganca wrote a paper entitled
"Chromium in Plants", Biological Trace Element Research, Vol. 17,
1988.
18. Paper entitled "Is Chromium Essential for Humans?", Nutrition
Review, Vol.46, ~o. 1, January, 1988.
19. J. Clausen wrote a paper entitled "Chromium Induced Clinical
Improvement in SYmptomatic HypoglYcaemia", Biological Trace
Element Research, Vol. 17, 1988.
20. K.N. Jeejeebhoy, R.C. Chu, E.B. Marliss, G.R. Greenberg, A.
Bruce-Robertson, wrote a paper entitled "Cnromium ~eficiency,
Glucose Intolerance, and Neuropathy Reversed by Chromium
Supplementation, in a Patient Receivina Lona-Term_ Total
Parenteral Nutrition", The American Journal of Clinical ~utrition
30: April 1977, pp.531-538.
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21. W. Mertz wrote a paper entitled "Chromium Cccurrence and Function
in Bioloaical Systems", Physiological Reviews, Vol.49, No. 2,
April 1969.
22. G. Hansen and C. Blincoe wrote a paper entitled "Pro~erties of a
Chromium Complex from Higher Plants", J. Agric.Food Chem., 1982,
30, 458-462.
23. G.N. Schrauzer, K.P. Shrestha, T.B. Molenaar and S. Mead wrote a
paper entitled "Effects of Chromium Supplementation on Food
Eneray Utilization and the Trace-Element Com~osition in the Liver
and Heart of Glucose-Exposed Young Mice", Biological Trace
Element Research, Vol.9, 1986.
24. N.C. Steele, T.G. Althen and L.T. Frobish wrote a paper entitled
"Biological Activity of Glucose T~lerance Factor in Swine",
Journal of Animal Scien oe , Vol. 45, No. 6 (1977).
25. N.C. Steele and R.W. Rosebrough wrote a paper entitled "Trivalent
Chromium and Nicotinic Acid Su~lementation for the Turkey
Poult", 1979 Poultry Science 58:983-984.
26. R.W. Rosebrough and N.C. Steele wrote a paper entitled "Effect of
Supplemental Dietary Chromium or Nicotinic Acid on Carbohydrate
Metabolism ~urinq Basal, Starvation, and Refeedinq Periods of
Poults", 1981 Poultry Science 60: 407-417.
27. R.A. Anderson, N.A. Bryden, M.M. Polansky and M.P. Richards wrote
a paper entitled "Chromium Supplementation of Turkeys: Effects on
Tis~ue Chromium", Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry,
January/February 1989, 131-134.
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It is an object of the present invention to provide a novel
way of alleviating stress-induced disorders in livestock using
biologically assimilable chromium as a feed supplement.
It is a further and more specific object of the invention
to provide a novel way of managing shipping fever in calves.
SUM~k~RY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is based upon the discovery that
increased levels of the trace mineral chromium, in biologically
assimilable form, in the diet of cattle can effectively reduce the
undesirable stress-induced disorders experienced as a result of
shipping. Thus the incidence of shipping fever in calves may be
reduced in animals which have been treated immediately following
shipping by the administration thereto of biologically assimilable
chromium. The treatment is continued for a period of about one month
and then in lower dosages thereafter until slaughter. It is believed
that this treatment also reduces the incidence of the "dark cutter"
effect. It is also believed that the treatment would have beneficial
effects if administered prior to shipment although such treatment is
unlikely then because the transfer of ownership of the cattle takes
place just prior to shipment and there is less concern for the
administration of prophylactic treatments of no immediate return.
Thus, from one aspect, the invention provides a process of
reducing the incidence or severity of stress-related disorders in
cattle, which comprises administering to the cattle an effective amount
of biologically assimilable chromium compound.
From another aspect, the invention provides a feed or water
supplement for administration to cattle for reducing the incidence or
severity of stress-related disorders therein, the feed or water
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supplement comprising an effective arnount of biolo3ically assirnilable
chromium compound. As a water supplement, it has been found effective
in the range of .01 grams to 2.5 grams for the daily intake of the
calf. As a feed supplement, it has been found effective in the range
of .01 grams to 2.5 grarns for the daily intake of the calf.
Frcrn a further aspect, the invention provides the use of
biologically assimilable chrcrnium, as an injectable medicine or
prophylactic etc., for reducing the incidence or severity, or
combatting, stress-related disorders in cattle.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
Since cattle may feed frcm depleted soils or feedstuffs,
certain trace mineral nutrients such as selenium in organic or
inorganic cnpounds, copper, zinc and potassium may be an additive in
a feed supplement product. It is believed that if chromium is also
added as part of the feed package that it will have beneficial effects
not only on its own but also synergistically in combination with other
nutrients.
The biologically active form of chromium is not known with
certainty, but is understood to be a proteinaceous organic canplex
involving chromium, nicotinic acid and the amino acids glycine,
cysteine and glutamic acid. This ccrnplex is commonly known as glucose
tolerance factor (GTF) chromium and GTF chromium is available as a
pro~uct on the open market. It can be fo~med by addition of inorganic
chromium to yeast cells. It has been reported that, chemically it is
tetra-aquo-dinicotinato-chrcrnium.
Accordingly, the preferred biologically assimilable
chranium ccmpound for use in the present invention is GTF~chrcmium. It
is much more biologically active than inorganic chromium. The
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invention can also use chromium compounds which fonm GTF-chromium in
situ, after administration to the animal body.
rrhe most advantageous use of the present invention is in
connection with calves, to prevent or lessen the severity of shipping
fever. Calves supplemented after arrival with biologically assimilable
chromium have been found to have enhanced immunity, reduced morbidity
(this particular effect seems to be improved by putting the chromium in
the water which is taken first by the cattle after shipment) and to be
capable of improved weight gains. Under normal circumstances, newly
arrived such calves, typically of weight 500-600 lbs., will commonly
lose weight in transit~ It is normally satisfactory to the farmer if
the transit weight is regained in the first 28 days, whilst a modest
weight gain of 1-2 pounds per day is cause for considerable
satisfaction.
The preferred amounts of biologically assimilable chromium,
the preferred method of administration of the chromium, and the
preferred times of supplying the chromium to the calves, in relation
to the time of experience of the shipping stress, are described with
reference to the following example referred to in a paper by X. Chang,
D. W. Mowat and K. G. Bateman of the ~niversity of Guelph who carried
out the test procedure in conjunction with the inventor.
108 calves of weight 500-600 lbs. were shipped in close
confinement by truck transit for three days from Western Canada to the
University of Guelph farm in Southwest Ontario. Upon arrival, they
were divided into four groups. Of the 108 animals, 28 received neither
the antibiotic nor the chromium supplement, 26 received the antibiotic
only, 26 received both the antibiotic and the chromium supplement and
the remainder received the chromium supplement only for the subsequent
28 days.
The chromium supplement was administered as follows:
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1 gram of chromium on a D.M. basis was placed in feed for 28 days
and thereafter after 0.5 grams.
The animals were subsequently tested for effectiveness of
the treatments and it was reported that the treatment with chromium had
considerable effect on daily gain showing an increase of 38% over the
controls. The antibiotic treated group showed 36% weight gain. Feed
efficiency was improved by 27% over the control whereas the antibiotic
group showed only 17% improvement. No improvement over controls was
shown for morbidity whereas the antibiotic group had a 12.9
improvement over the control group. The chromium was also linked to
various indicators of improved immunity in the cattle such as decreased
serum cortisol levels and improved zinc retention. There was also
observed a increased insulin response.
The inventor has observed in other tests conducted by him
that the cattle first drink water after shipment and take little food
in the first days. Accordingly chromium was added to the water drunk
by the cattle as follows;
1 gram per head of chromium was placed in water to be drunk by
each calf over a day's time for a period of 2-4 days. The water
was gently agitated to keep the chromium in suspension.
The results of the inventor, while not conducted in a
statistically significant test indicate that improved morbidity levels
are obtained in such treatment when it is combined with the treatment
of adding chromium to the feed as described above.
Whilst the invention shows its preferred application in
connection with alleviation of shipping fever in calves, it is not to
be construed as limited to this application. Beneficial effects in t~e
reduction or alleviation of stress-induced disorders can also be
obtained by use of chromium supplements on mature cattle and at other
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times than shipping such as just prior to slaughter to avoid the "dark
cutter" effect.
The inventor has also observed a synergistic reaction of
the chranium supplement with hormone implants (in heifers with
estrediol benzoate and testosterone propionate implants and with steers
estrediol benzoate and progesterone implants) relating to weight gain.
In particular, weight gain on average of 2.89 pounds per day was
achieved. By comparison, a mixed herd of heifers and steers
supplemented with chromium only gained, on average, 1.57 pounds per
day. The industry standard is in the range of 1.32 and 1.50 pounds per
day when given the estrediol benzoate/testosterone (heifers) or
estrediol benzoate/progesterone implants only.
