Note: Descriptions are shown in the official language in which they were submitted.
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
%:
1
ENERGY GENERATION
The present invention relates to the generation of energy, and
more particularly to the release of energy as a result of both
a state-transition in hydrogen and fusion of light atomic nuclei .
Normally, fusion processes are able to be initiated only at
extremely high temperatures, as found in the vicinity of a
nuclear fusion (uranium or plutonium) detonation. This is the
principle of most thermonuclear bombs. ~~uch a release of energy
is impractical as a means of providing the power to generate
electricity and heat for distribution, as it occurs too rapidly
with too high a magnitude for it to be manageable.
In recent years, many attempts have :been made to initiate
controlled fusion processes at high temperatures by the enclosure
of a region of plasma-discharge within a confined space, such as
a toroidal chamber, using electromagnE_tic restraint. Such
attempts have met with little commercial success to date as
systems which employ such a technique have so far consumed more
energy than they have produced and are not continuous processes.
Another approach which has been attempted in order to achieve
fusion of light nuclei has been the so-called "cold fusion"
technique, in which deuterium atoms~have been induced to tunnel
' into the crystal lattice of a metal such as palladium during
electrolysis. It is claimed that the atoms are forced together _
in the lattice, overcoming the repulsive electrostatic force.
However, no clear and unambiguous demonstration of successful
cold fusion has yet been presented publicly.
The present invention provides a method of releasing energy
comprising the steps of providing an electrolyte having a
catalyst therein, the catalyst being suitable for initiating
transitions of hydrogen and/or deuterium atoms in the electrolyte
to a sub-ground energy state, and generating a plasma discharge
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
2
in the electrolyte. The applicants have determined that this
method generates substantially more energy than the power input
used to generate the plasma, whilst doing so in a controllable
manner.
Preferably, the plasma discharge is generated by applying a
voltage across electrodes in the electrolyte and an intermittent
voltage has proved particularly beneficial in increasing the
level of energy generation. It also provides a means of
controlling the process to maintain a consistent level of energy
production over a significant period of 'time:
The application of a voltage higher than that necessary to
generate plasma is also beneficial to t:he process and will be
typically in the range 50V to 20000V and preferably between 300
and 2000V, but may be higher than 20000V, whereas in conventional
electrolysis techniques low voltages of about 3 volts are used
and applied continuously across the electrodes.
The applied voltage may be DC or provided at a switching
frequency of up to 100 kHz. The duty cycle of the applied
voltage is preferably in the range 0.5 to 0.001, but may be even
lower than 0.001. During the pulse period a monomolecular layer
of metal hydride may be formed at the cathode-Helmholtz layer
interface and subsequently decays to form gas in the nascent
state comprising monatomic hydrogen and/or deuterium. The
waveform of the applied voltage may be substantially square
shaped. Whilst application of DC to the electrode does produce
the metal hydride and monatomic hydrogen and/or deuterium, the
use of a pulsed voltage has been found t.o be more efficient as
most dissociation of the hydride then occurs between the pulses.
In applications where the electrolyte is flowed past the
electrodes it may be preferable to use two separate cathodes, the
first of which will be engineered to optimise production of
hydrogen/deuterium atoms and the second of which will provide the
plasma discharge. In this instance the direction of flow of the
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
3
electrolyte is from first to second cathode. The design of the
apparatus seeks to direct the f low of electrolyte to maximise
contact of monatomic hydrogen or deuterium atoms with the plasma.
The characteristics and magnitudes of the voltages applied to
each cathode are preferably similar, but may have different duty
periods.
In a preferred embodiment, the cathode de:~ign and applied voltage
are such as to provide a current density of 400,000 amps per
square metre or even greater. More preferably, the current
density at the cathode is 500, 000 amps per square metre or above.
In carrying out a preferred method in accordance with the
invention, it has been found that the process may be assisted by
initial heating of the electrolyte,.whicri may be water or a salt
solution, prior to applying electrical input to the vessel. A
temperature in the range 40 to 100°C, ox- more preferably 40 to
80°C, has been found to be particularly beneficial.
The ratio of water to deuterium oxide (1D20 ) in the electrolyte
may be varied to control the energy generation. In some
circumstances it may be preferable to use "light" water H20 alone
and in others to use D20 alone. Additionally, the amount of
catalyst added to the electrolyte may be varied as a controlling
factor and preferably lies in the range 1 to 20 mMol.
In preferred embodiments, the method includes the step of
generating a magnetic field in the region of the electrodes. The
intensity and/or frequency of the current used to generate the
field may be adjusted to move the plasma discharge away from the
electrode from which it is struck in order to minimise erosion
and extend the operating life of the system. Only slight
separation may be required to achieve this effect.
In further preferred embodiments, the heat generated by the
process may be removed and utilised by way of a number of known
and proven technologies including the circulation of the
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
4
electrolyte through a heat exchanger, or using heat pipes to
produce heating, or alternatively to produce electricity using
a pressurised steam cycle or a low-boiling-point fluid turbine
cycle, or by other means.
The present invention further provides apparatus for carrying out
methods disclosed herein comprising an anode, first and second
cathodes, a reaction vessel having an inlet and an outlet, means
for feeding an electrolyte through the vessel from its inlet to
its outlet, the electrolyte having a catalyst therein suitable
for initiating transitions of hydrogen and/or deuterium atoms in
the electrolyte to a sub-ground energy state, means for applying
a voltage across the anode and the first cathode to form hydrogen
and/or deuterium atoms, and means for applying a voltage across
the anode and second cathode to generate: a plasma discharge in
the electrolyte, the second cathode being downstream from the
first cathode.
During the methods described herein, atoms of hydrogen and/or
deuterium are believed to undergo a fundamental change in their
structure by exchange of photons with salts in solution. The
applicants believe that this change, and the observed phenomena,
can be explained as set out below.
It is well known that a system comprising a spherical shell of
charge {the electron path) located around an atomic nucleus
constitutes a resonant cavity. Resonant systems act as the
repository of photon energy of discrete frequencies. The
absorbtion of energy by a resonant system excites the system to
a higher-energy state. For any spherical resonant cavity, the
relationship between a permitted radius and the wavelength of the
absorbed photon is:
27rr = n~
where n is an integer
and ~ is the wavelength
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
For non-radiating or stable states, the relationship between the
electron wavelength and the allowed radii is:
2~rfnrn - 2~rrcn> - n~.,u - acna (2)
where n = 1
or n = 2, 3, 4 ....,..
or n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 .........
and ~tla - the allowed wavelength for n = 1
rcl~ - the allowed radius for n = 1
In a hydrogen atom (and the following applies equally to a
deuterium atom), the ground state electron-path radius can be
defined as rco~. This is sometimes referred to as the Bohr
radius, ao. There is normally no spontaneous photon emission from
a ground state atom and thus there must be a balance between the
centripetal and the electric forces present. Thus:
~mce~ -v12~ /rco> - ze2/ (4~r. e,o~ ~rco>2) (3)
where mce~ - electron rest mass
vl - ground state electron velocity
a - elementary charge
- electric constant
(sometimes referred to as the
permittivity of free space)
Z atomic number (for hydrogen, 1)
Looking first at the excited (higher enE:rgy) states, where the
hydrogen atom has absorbed photons) of discrete
wavelength/frequency (and hence energy), the system is again
stable and normally non-radiating, and to maintain force balance,
the effective nuclear charge becomes Zeff = z/n, and the balance
equation becomes:
~mce) ~vn2~ /nrco> - Le2/n~ / (4~r. a coy ~ ~nrcoo z) (4)
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
6
where n - integer value of excited state (1,2,3.....)
vn = electron velocity in the nth excited state
The absorbtion of radiation by an atom thus results in an excited
state which may decay to ground state, or to a lower excited
state, spontaneously, or be triggered to do so, resulting in the
re-release of a quantum of energy in the form of a photon. In
any system consisting of a large number' of atoms, transitions
between states are occurring continuously and randomly and this
activity gives rise to the observable spectra of emitted
radiation from hydrogen.
Each value of n corresponds to a transition which is permitted
to occur when a resonant photon is absorbf~d by the atom. Integer
values of n represent the absorbtion of energy by the atom.
Fractional values for n are allowed by the relationship between
the standing wavelength of the electron and the radius of the
electron-path, given by (2), above. To maintain force balance,
transitions involving fractional values for n must effectively
increase the nuclear charge Z to a figure Zeff. and reduce the
radius of the electron-path accordingly. This is equivalent to
the atom emitting a photon of energy while in the accepted ground
state, effecting a transition to a sub-ground state. Because the
accepted ground state is a very stable one, such transitions are
rarely encountered but the applicants ha,;re discovered that they
can be induced if the atom is in close, proximity to another
system which acts as a "receptor-site" for the exact energy
quantum required to effect the transition.
The emission of energy by a hydrogen atom in this way is not
limited to a single transition "down" from ground state, but can
occur repetitively and, possibly, transitions to 1/3, 1/4, 1/5
etc states may occur as a single event i:E the energy balance of
the atom and the catalytic system is favourable. Of course, the
usual uncertainty principles forbid thE: determination of the
behaviour of any individual atom, but statistical rules govern
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
7
the properties of any macroscopic (>109 quanta) system.
When a "ground-state" hydrogen atom em_Lts a photon of around
27eV, the transition occurs to the ao/2 state as demonstrated
above and the effective nuclear charge increases to +2e. A new
equilibrium for the force balance is now established. The
electron path radius is reduced. The potential energy of the
atom in its reduced radius-state is given by
V = -~Zieff)eZI [4~rECo> (acoy2) ] ~ - -(4 x 27.1.78}
- -108.7 eV
The kinetic energy, T, of the reduced electron path is given by
T = - [V/2] - 54 .35 eV
Similarly, it can be seen that the kinetic energy of the ground
state electron path is about 13.6 eV. Thus there is a net change
in energy of about 41 eV for the transition:
H { ~-' (eff) -1 % r=a co> ~ to H f z ceff> =2 % r=a eo) / ~~
That is to say, of this 41 eV, about 2'7 eV is emitted as the
catalytic transfer of~energy occurs, and the remaining 14 eV is
emitted on restablisation to the force balance.
The radial "ground-state" field can be considered as a -
superposition of Fourier components. If integral Fourier
components of energy equal to m x 27.2 eV are removed, the
positive electric field inside the electron path radius increases
by
(m) x 1.602 x 10-19C
The resultant electric field is a time-harmonic solution of the
Laplace equations in spherical co-ordinat:es. In the case of the
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
8
reduced radius hydrogen atom, the radius at which force balance
and the non-radiative condition are achieved is given by
r cm> - a co> ~ [m+1 ]
where m is an integer.
From the energy change equations give=_n above, it will be
appreciated that, in decaying to this radius from the so-called
"ground-state", the atom emits a total energy equal to
[(m+1)2 - 12] x 13.59 eV (5)
The applicants have found that such energy emissions as take
place according to (5), above, only appear to occur when the
hydrogen or deuterium is found in the monatomic (or so-called
"nascent") state. Molecular hydrogen might be made to behave
similarly, but the transition is more difficult to achieve owing
to the higher energies involved.
In order to achieve the transition in monatomic hydrogen (H) or
deuterium (D), it is necessary to accumulate the molecular form
in the gas phase on a substrate such as nickel or tungsten which
favours the dissociation of the molecu:Le. As well as being
dissociated into the monatomic form, the: hydrogen or deuterium
should be bound to the catalytic system to initiate the reaction.
The preferred method of achieving this i;~ by electrolysis using
cathode material which favours dissociation. _
The applicants have discovered that the catalytic systems which
encourage transitions to sub-ground-state energies are those
which offer a near-perfect energy couplE: to the Im x 27.2] eV
needed to "flip" the atom of H or D. It <~ppears from experiment
that the effective sink of energy providE~d by the catalyst need
not be precisely equal to that emitted by the atom. Successful
transitions have been achieved when there is an error of as much
as ~2% between the energy emitted by the atom and that absorbed
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
9
by the catalytic system. One possible explanation for this is
that, in a macroscopic sized system, although the transitions are
initiated by a close match in energy level, such discrepancies
as arise are manifested as an overall loss or gain in the kinetic
energies of the recipient ionic systems'.. It is thought that
spectroscopic analysis of active H or D catalytic systems may
provide evidence of this.
One catalyst that has been found to initiate the transition to
the ao/n state is rubidium in the Rb+ ionic species. If a salt
of rubidium, such as the carbonate Rb2CO3 1S dissolved in either
water or deuterium oxide (heavy w;ater), a substantial
dissociation into Rb+ and (C03) 2- ions takes place . If the Rb+
ions are bound closely to monatomic H or D; the transition to the
ao/n state is encouraged by the removal of a further electron
from the rubidium ion, by provision of its second ionisation
energy of about 27.28 eV. Thus:
Rb+ +Hta~o~/p~+27.28 eV ->
Rbz+ + e- +H(ato~/ [p+1] } + ~ [ (p+1) 2 -p2] x .L3 .59} eV
where p represents an integral number of such transitions for any
given H and D atom and by spontaneous re-association:
Rb2+ + e- - Rb+ +2 7 . 2 8 eV
Thus, the rubidium catalyst remains unchanged in the reaction and _
there is a net yield of energy per transition.
Other catalytic systems can be used which have ionisation
energies approximating to [m x 27.2]eV, ;such as titanium in the
form of Ti2+ ions and potassium in the form of K+ ions.
The applicants believe that the above explanation is consistent
with currently accepted quantum theory a;s discussed below.
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
Commencing with the equations of Rydberg and Schrodinger it can
be shown that fractional numbers for thE: quantum energy states
in hydrogen yield possible transitions which result in emissions
at frequencies which are in accord with observed UV and X-ray
spectra. It is therefore possible that the conditions conducive
to initiating such transitions may be artificially reproduced in
the laboratory under certain circumstances.
The Rydberg formula for the frequency of emitted radiation from
a transition in monatomic hydrogen is:
v = RchW (1/ncz~2-1/ncl2)
where:
v is the frequency of the emitted photon
R~h~ is Rydberg constant, 1.097373 c 107 m-1
c is the speed of light in vacuo, 2.997 :x 103 ms-1
and
n~l~ , n~2~ are the transition states
It can be seen from the above that, if the resultant energy state
of the hydrogen atom is that which requires n~2~ to be equal to
1/2, emissions will occur which are of higher frequency than the
observed Lyman 2-1 transition in the ultra-violet at 2.467 x
l~lsHz (about 121 nm). There is, indeed, an observed emission at
a wavelength of about 30.8 nm, which appE_ars to be confirmed by
recent studies of galactic cluster emissions by Bohringer et al
(Scientific American, January 1999) and it is difficult for the
inventor to conceive of any other quantum-mechanical event which
would give rise to such an emission, other than a transition, in
accord with the above theory, from 1 to 1,/2 in nascent hydrogen.
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
11
As can be seen from the above use oi= the standard Rydberg
equation, such behaviour of hydrogen in t:he monatomic state views
the conventional hydrogen "ground-state" as one of many stable
electronically-preferred states for single H atoms.
To summarise; a proliferation of H or D atoms is produced which
may have had significantly diminished electron-path-radii by
virtue of exchange of photons with their environment. These
atoms appear to be relatively unreactiv~e chemically and appear
not to readily take the molecular form H-H or D-D. This is a
fortunate property which has significance and enables fusion
pathways, as described below.
The fusion of light nuclei, hydrogen and deuterium, to form
heavier elements such as helium is one 'which has traditionally
been encouraged by subjecting the reactants to extremes of
temperature and pressure. This has been necessary because there
is a large electric charge barrier to overcome in order to bring
nuclei close enough for fusion to occur.
Using atoms with diminished electron path radius, adjacent nuclei
may experience a corresponding reduction in electric barrier and
internuclear separations may become smaller. With reductions in
internuclear separation, fusion processes become more probable,
and more easily occasioned.
There are two principle fusion pathways for deuterium atoms . The
first is:
21D + 21D = 32He +lOn
where two deuterium nuclei fuse to produce an isotope of helium
and a free neutron, which subsequently decays (half-life 6.48 x
lOZS), with emission of a i3- particle of medium energy (about
0.8Mev), and a type of neutrino, to become a stable proton.
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
12
The second is:
21D + 21D = 31T + 11H
where the two deuterium nuclei fuse to produce the isotope of
hydrogen known as tritium (T) and a free stable proton. The
tritium eventually decays (half-life 12.3 years), with emission
of a i~- particle of very low energy (about 0.018 MeV), to become
32He
Of the two, the second fusion path is preferred for the peaceful
exploitation of its energy yield, because the fusion products are
(relatively) harmless on production, a:nd decay to completely
innocuous species within a short time, emitting radiation which
can be effectively shielded by a thin sheet of kitchen foil or
by 10 mm of acrylic plastic, for example.
When deuterium nuclei are forced together- under high temperature
and pressure conditions (as in a thermonuclear bomb), there is
a greater than 50% probability for the :First pathway to be the
dominant one . This is because the high tEamperature process takes
no account of nuclear alignment at the point of fusion. It is
actually a matter of forcing nucleic together indiscriminately
and hoping that enough fuse to produce .an explosion. However,
the applicants believe, in accord with established theory, that
it is the alignment of the nuclei with respect to the charges in
each nucleus which ultimately determiners the favourable fusion
path.
In order to achieve a higher probability for the second, less
hazardous, pathway, the approaching nuclei need to have time to
align electrostatically such that the proton-proton separation
is at a maximum. This can only be achieved at far lower energies
than those found in a thermonuclear bomb. By the use of entities
with diminished electron-path-radii, and correspondingly
potentially smaller internuclear distances, fusion can be
initiated at lower temperatures (and consequently lower
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
13
energies), allowing for the charge-related alignment necessary
to achieve a high probability for the second, tritium-forming,
pathway. By introducing deuterium of diminished electron-path-
radius into a plasma discharge which is cc>nfined within the water
in the vessel itself, fusion is may be initiated. Temperatures
of the order of 6000 K are obtained within certain plasma
discharges and this, coupled with multiple quantum transitions
to produce deuterium of diminished electron-path-radius, produces
a substantial yield of energy from the two-stage process.
Another possible but less likely fusion pathway for hydrogen
atoms is:
11H + 11H = Z1D + f~+ +T
whereby f3+ is produced as one of the products.
Embodiments of the invention will now be described by way of
example and witch reference to the accompanying schematic
drawings, wherein:
Figure 1 shows an apparatus for carrying out a method in
accordance with the invention on a relatively small scale;
Figure 2 shows a system for operating and measuring the
performance of the apparatus of Figure 1;
Figure 3 shows a circuit diagram high voltage, high
frequency switching circuit for the system of Figure 2;
Figure 4 shows an apparatus for ca=crying out a method in -
accordance with the invention on a larger scale than that of the
Figure 1 apparatus; and
Figure 5 shows a further apparatus far carrying out a method
of the invention which includes two cathodes.
The apparatus of Figure 1 enables the generation of energy
according to the principles of the invention in the laboratory.
Any risk of thermal runaway is minimised., whilst demonstrating
that the level of energy release from the two stages is far in
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
14
excess of that which would result from any purely chemical or
electrochemical activity. It also enable; easy calorimetry, safe
ducting away of off-gases, and of subsequent extraction of liquid
for titration (to demonstrate that no chernical action takes place
during the operation of the apparatus).
A 250m1 beaker is provided with a glass quilt or expanded
polystyrene surround 6 to act as insulation. This can include
an inspection cut-out so that the area around the cathode 9 can
be observed from outside. The beaker contains 200 ml of water,
into which is dissolved a small quantity of potassium carbonate
so as to give a solution of approximately 2 mMol strength. A
platinum lead wire 1 is earthed to the laboratory reference
ground plane. The anode 10, a sheet: of platinum foil of
approximately 10mm2 in area, is attached to this lead wire by
mechanical crimping. A digital thermomE:ter 2 is inserted into
the liquid in the vessel. A 0.25mm diameter tungsten wire
cathode 9 is sheathed in borosilicate glass or ceramic tube 4 and
sealed at the end immersed in the electrolyte so as to expose
lOmm to 20mm of wire in contact with the liquid. The entire
assembly of lead wires and the thermometer is carried by an
acrylic plate 5 which enables of easy dismantling and inspection
of the apparatus.
A supply of up to 360 volts DC, capable of supplying up to 2
amperes, is arranged external to the de;~cribed apparatus. The
positive terminal of this supply is connected to the laboratory
reference ground plane and the negative germinal is connected to
one pole of an isolated high-voltage switching unit. The other
pole of the switch is connected to the j~ungsten wire cathode 9
externally of the apparatus.
To operate the apparatus, the solution 8 is initially brought up
to between 40°C and 80°C either by preheating outside the
apparatus or by passing power through a heating element in the
solution (not shown). When the solution. is between these
temperatures it is either transferred to the above apparatus or,
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
if a heating element is used, this is turned off.
With all connections made as described, the switch is set to
operate at a duty cycle of 1% and a pulse repetition frequency
of 100Hz. It will be seen through the inspection cut-out that
an intense plasma-arc is intermittently struck under the water
at or near the cathode. If equipment is <~vailable to monitor the
current drawn, it will be seen that the system consumes in the
region of 1 watt when the switching circuits is operating. It
will be seen by the rapid rise in temperature in the apparatus
that far more energy is being released than can be accounted for
by the electrical input. As a comparison, a heater element can
be substituted for the electrodes and operated 1 watt and the
effects observed. There is really no need for sophisticated
calorimetry to verify that large quantities of energy are being
released close to the cathode of the equipment, such is the
magnitude of the reaction for the proces:~, as compared to a test
with a resistive heating element of the same input power.
The data obtained from a representativE: one-hour session with
this apparatus as shown as Table 1, below:
Pre Run Measurements
Commencingvolume of electrolyte 0.200
Commencingtemperature of cell 39.200 C
Laboratoryambient temperature 20.500 C
Spec. heatcapacity of vessel 70.300 J.C-1 _
Spec. heatcapacity of electrolyte 9:180.000 J.I-1. C-1
Steady voltage 4.000 volts
RMS
Steady current 0.067 Amps
RMS
Post Run Results
Duration of input 3600.000 secs
Final volume of electrolyte 0.180 P
Final temperature of cell 93.600 °C
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
16
Steady RMS voltage 6.700 volts
Steady RMS current 0.122 Amps
Time-averaged power in 0.506 watts
Results Summary
Vessel Gain 3824.320 Joules
Electrolyte gain 43181.740 Joules
Radiated power 38681.030 Joules
Evaporated loss 48509.240 Joules
TOTAL ENERGY IN............ 1820.070 Joules
TOTAL ENERGY OUTPUT........ 134196.300 Joules
It can be seen from this table that the total energy input during
this test was measured at 1820 Joules and, taking as a rough
guideline that 200m1 of water requires i=he input of 838 joules
of energy to raise it by 1°C, then by direct heating the water
would be expect to rise by some 2°C, be<~ring in mind radiative
losses. In fact, during the experiment the water temperature was
raised from 39.2°C to 93.6°C and considerable steam was also
liberated. Furthermore, the calculated energy output of 134196
Joules does not take account of secondary effects such as light-
energy output and Faradaic electrolysis.
A system suitable for operating the apparatus of Figure 1 is
illustrated in a block diagram in Figures 2. A pulse generator _
20 supplies a variable duty-cycle pulse waveform to a high
voltage switch unit 22. The pulse waveform may be monitored on
an oscilloscope 24 and its repetition frequency is displayed on
a first frequency counter 26. A second frequency counter 28 is
provided to monitor the clock speed of the switch unit 22. Power
supply 30 is operable to apply a voltage= between 0 and 360V to
an electrode of the apparatus 12, shown in Figure 1. The voltage
level may be read from a digital multimet:er 32. The RMS voltage
across the electrodes 9 and 10 is indicated on a multimeter 34
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
17
and the RMS current passing between the electrodes is shown on
another multimeter 36, by measuring the voltages developed across
a l ohm resistor 37. The temperature in the apparatus 12 is
indicated on a dip temperature probe 38. The switch unit 22 may
be bypassed by a push button switch ?~9 to apply a constant
voltage across the electrodes.
A circuit diagram of the switch unit 22 is shown in Figure 3.
In the system of Figure 2, input 40 is connected to the output
of pulse generator 20. The output 42 of the switch unit is
connected to the cathode of the apparatus 12. Two NAND gates 44
and 46 are two fourths of a Schmitt-trigger 2 input NAND gate
chip type 4093. NAND gate 44 operates as an astable
multivibrator, with its repetition frequency set by a preset
resistor 45. The output of gate 44 is fed to one input of NAND
gate 46, the other input forming circuii~ input 40. The output
of NAND gate 46 is connected to a thrE:e transistor amplifier
consisting of transistors 48, 50 and 52. The amplifier is in
turn connected to one end of the primary of a transformer 54, the
other end being connected to earth. The transformer output is
fed to a bridge rectifier formed from diodes 56, 58, 60 and 62.
The rectifier output is fed via a resistor 64 to the gate of an
insulated gate bipolar transistor 66 (IGBT). The load of the
apparatus 12 is connected in the drain circuit of the IGBT. A
l5kV diode 68 is connected between the drain and the source of
the IGBT 66 to protect the IGBT from the sizeable EMI emissions
from plasma discharges in the apparatus 12 and avoids damage to
this sensitive semiconductor. A further diode 70 is provided
between the drain of the IGBT and the circuit output 42 to act
as an EMI blocker in a similar way. A standard 20mm 5A quick-
blow fuse 69 is connected between the source of the IGBT and
ground in order to protect the device against overcurrent.
The operation of the circuit of Figure 3 is as follows. The
repetition frequency is NAND gate 44 is preferably set to between
4 and 6 MHz. Pulse generator 20 is adjusted to set the duty of
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
18
the switching. On receipt of an external pulse from the
generator, NAND gate 46 passes a packel: of 4 to 6 MHz square
waves to the amplifier. The amplifier has considerable current
gain and enables the primary of the transformer 54 to be driven
resonantly with the RC circuit formed by capacitor 72 and
resistor 74 which are connected in parallel therewith. The
transformer 54 has a step-up ratio of 2:1 and a 4 to 6 MHz signal
of approximately 19 volts appears across the bridge rect if ier .
The impedance of the rectifier output is essentially determined
by a parallel resistor 76, such that the switch-on and switch-off
time of the IGBT 66 is very fast. Thus, there is never a point
in the operation of the device when it is dissipating any
measurable power. The load of the apparatus 12 is placed in the
drain circuit of the IGBT, which is therefore operating in
"common-source" made to ensure that its. source terminal never
rises above high-side ground potential: This, again, is a
configuration which uses excess input power. This circuit
ensures a rise time of the switched waveform which is less than
lOnS and a fall time which can be as low as 30nS at modest supply
voltages.
Preferred component values and types for the circuit of Figure
3 are as follows:
Transistor 4, 50 - 2N 3649
Transistor 52 - 2N 3645
Diodes 56, 58, 60, 62 - BAT85 Schottky
Transformer 54 - RS195 - 460
IGBT 66 - GT8Q101
Diode 68 - l5kv EHT
Diode 70 - 1N1198A
Resistor Value (S2? Capacitor Value
47 1.8k 49 lOpF
51 33 55 33nF
53 220 72 22pF
74 56
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
19
76 560
64 56
A second apparatus for carrying out the invention is illustrated
in Figure 4. This apparatus comprises a tubular chamber 80,
which may be constructed from a nonmagnetic metal or metal alloy
material such as, but not exclusively, <~luminium or Duralumin,
or may alternatively be constructed from a non-permeable ceramic
material or from borosilicate glass. The tubular chamber 80 is
constructed in flanged form to allow of its incorporation into
a system of pipework via flanges 82 and 84 and gaskets 86.
Entering the chamber 80 are two electrodes, the cathode 88 being
sheathed in an insulating glass or ceramic tube 90 and shaped so
as to present itself along the axis of thcs chamber 92. The anode
94 is connected to a similar insulated wire 96 and is shaped so
as to present a circular plate opposite the cathode 88. The
distance between the cathode tip and the anode plate should be
approximately equal to the radius of the chamber 80. The cathode
may be constructed from tungsten, zircc>nium, stainless steel,
nickel or tantalum, or any other metallic or conductive ceramic
material which may contribute to, or occasion, the dissociative
process described above. The anode may be constructed from
platinum, palladium, rhodium or any other inert material which
does not undergo any significant level of chemical interaction
with the electrolyte.
Surrounding the chamber 80, and concentric with it, is a winding
98 of enamelled copper or silver wire of. diameter 0.1 to 0.8mm
consisting of up to several thousand turns of the wire. The
purpose of this winding 98 is to create :an axial magnetic field
inside the chamber 80.
Electrolyte comprising deuterium oxide, in combination with
ordinary "light" water in varying proportions, and containing
high-molarity salts of, but not exclusively of, potassium,
rubidium or lithium, or combinations of such salts, is pumped
through the chamber 80, in a direction such that the anode is
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
downstream of the cathode.
The anode lead wire 96 is connected to the ground plane or zero
volts. The cathode 88 is connected to a variable source of
between 50 and preferably 2000 volts negative with respect to the
grounded anode 94, but may be coupled to a voltage of up to
several tens of thousands of volts negative with respect to such
anode 94. To enhance performance of the .invention, the negative
voltage may be supplied in the form of pulses having a duty cycle
between 0.001 and 0.5.
The winding 98 is energised with an alternating voltage such as
to provide a current flow of typically beaween 0.5 and 1.5 amps
initially. The frequency of the applied alternating voltage
should be variable from DC up to l5kHz and may, in addition, be
synchronous with pulses applied to the cathode 88.
Under these conditions, a plasma arc wi7_1 strike close to the
cathode 88. The intensity and frequency of the current flowing
in winding 98 may be adjusted to provide for the removal of the
plasma arc from the immediate vicinity of the cathode 88 to avoid
excessive evaporation of the material frc>m the cathode 88.
The volume of electrolyte pumped through chamber 80 and past the
plasma arc may be varied such as to stabilise the temperature of
such electrolyte in a closed system at below at its boiling
point.
Heat may be extracted from the electrolytes by passing it through
a heat exchanger before its re-introduction into the chamber 80.
Provision may be made to top-up the water/deuterium content of
the electrolyte as this becomes depleted by operation of the
apparatus . The system may operate at a range of pressures to
facilitate heat removal.
A further apparatus for carrying out the invention, similar to
that of Figure 4, is shown in Figure 5 on a scale of
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
21
approximately 1:2.5. It comprises a borosilcate reaction tube
100 supported at one end on a machined nylon support bridge 102.
A second machined nylon element 104 is mounted across the other
end of the tube. The bridge 102 and element 104 are clamped
against the tube 100 by 8mm threaded stainless steel studs 110.
A first cathode 106 is in the form of a nickel wire mesh. It is
mounted towards one end of tube 100 on a stainless steel support
108. Electrical connection to the first cathode 106 is via a
PVC-sleeved wire (not shown).
A second cathode 112 consists of an 0.5mm diameter length of
tungsten wire provided within a drilled macor ceramic sheath 114 ,
which is in turn placed within a lOmm stainless steel tube 116.
Tube 116 passes through the support 102 and has a perspex end cap
118 on the external end through which the second cathode 112
passes. A PVC funnel 120 is provided around the second cathode
and is tapered towards it, with the cathode tip adjacent the
narrower open end thereof. The funnel is supported on sleeves
121 provided on the stainless steel support 108.
The anode comprises an 0.25mm diameter platinum wire 122 which
is connected at one end within the tube 100 to a sheet of
platinum foil 124. Like the second cathode 112, the anode is
provided within a l0mm diameter stainles;~ steel tube 126, which
passes through nylon element 104 and is closed at its external
end by a perspex end cap 128. Platinum wire 122 passes through
the end cap 128.
A plasma deflection coil 130 is mounted within tube 100 between
the anode 124 and cathodes 106, 112. Electrical power is fed to
the coil via connectors 132.
Electrolyte is supplied to the tube 100 via a brass inlet 134
provided through the support bridge 102 and flows out through
nylon element 104 via a brass outlet 136. An additional brass
outlet 138 is also provided in nylon element 104 to allow the
CA 02347851 2001-04-24
22
electrolyte to be sampled during operation of the apparatus.
Fuse holders and cable connectors for the apparatus are provided
in a unit 140 mounted on the support bridge 102.
The apparatus of Figure 5 is operated in a. similar manner to that
of Figure 4, as discussed above. The primary distinction is that
two cathodes 106, 112 are employed in place of a single cathode.
In use, electrolyte is fed through the tube 100, past the
electrodes, from inlet 134 to outlet 136. A pulsed voltage is
applied to the first cathode 106 such that a layer of metal
hydride is formed on it surface during the voltage pulses and
subsequently dissociates to form nascent monatomic
hydrogen/deuterium. The applied voltage characteristics are
selected to optimise the production rate of the monatomic
hydrogen/deuterium. These products are channelled towards the
second cathode 112 by the funnel 120. A voltage is applied to
the second cathode 112 to generate a pla;~ma discharge thereat.
The characteristics and magnitudes of the voltages applied to the
first and second cathodes may be similar, but it may be
advantageous for different duty periods to be employed for
respective cathodes. This cathode arrangement with the second
cathode downstream of the first seeks to rr~aximise contact between
the monatomic hydrogen/deuterium and the plasma and therefore the
efficiency of the apparatus . This is further assisted by the
funnel 120.
