Note: Descriptions are shown in the official language in which they were submitted.
=
SET FUNCTION CALCULATION IN A DATABASE
10001]
TECHNICAL FIELD
100021 This disclosure relates generally to data access and
data manipulation
systems and methods, and particularly to those that utilize enhanced indexing
methods.
BACKGROUND
100031 Web server applications are increasingly being used to provide users
with
access to data stored in databases over the Internet using web browsers. These
web server
applications respond to incoming user requests by providing concurrent threads
of
execution, each of which responds to an individual request, while maintaining
per-user
web server application access information. These requests often require
different types of
searches, calculations or modifications of data stored in large databases.
100041 As a result of this environment, database oriented web
server applications
are required to logically maintain numbers of large result sets, and to be
able to perform
multiple types of calculations or insertions with high efficiency to maintain
a reasonable
performance level for the users.
100051 Database designs have addressed the demand for increasing the
performance
of database operations, specifically searches and queries, by introducing
indexes (also
called inverted indexes). Each index is defined and exists within the context
of a table in
the database. Most indexes are optional, and are created by the user to
enhance the speed
of one or more queries performed on the table. The user can define more than
one index
for the same table, basing the indexes on different fields defined in the
table. When the
user defines an index based on a field in the table, the user is requesting
the database to
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create a separate sorted list of all values of that field in that table, with
a link from each
value to the location of the corresponding record in the table. Thus, the
database concept
of an index is similar to the concept of indexes used, for example, in books.
[0006] As an example, consider a table of records arranged in rows and
consisting
of the names of all people in a company, with the first and last names saved
in different
fields (columns). As new names are added to the table, they can be added to
the end of
the stack on the disk in no specific order in relation to the value of the
first or last name in
the record. If the user knows that there will be frequent queries on the basis
of the last
names, the user can define an index for the last names in the table. As a
result, the
database creates a separate sorted list of all last names in the database, and
includes
within each record in the list a pointer to the location of the corresponding
record in the
table. In this way, whenever responding to a query for a specific last name
(e.g.
"Smith"), instead of walking through each record and performing a comparison
of the
value of the last name in that record with the desired last name (a method
called full table
.. scan), the database engine can search through the sorted index of last
names and locate
the records with the desired last name with fewer steps and then use their
pointers to find
the corresponding record(s) in the table. This is similar to the way one can
locate all
occurrences of a word in a book in much less time by using the book index
instead of
browsing through the whole book.
[0007] The index defined over the last names field, is an example of a
simple index,
defined over a single field of a table. A user may define multiple simple
indexes for the
same table to improve queries on those fields. On the other hand, one can also
define a
composite (multi-field) index, which is defined based on a combination of two
or more
fields in a table. For example, for the above table, assume that the database
is frequently
queried for records with specific conditions on last names and first names,
e.g. all records
with a specific last name ("Smith") where the first name starts with a
specific letter (say
"P"). With this information the user can define a multi-field index for this
table, based on
the values of the first name appended at the end of the value of the last name
for each
record. This index makes such a query easier.
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(0008] Indexes are usually sorted in specific balanced tree structures
of linked
records to facilitate the search mechanism. While creating a new index for a
table adds
the benefit of efficiency and higher performance for specific queries that the
index is
designed for, it can also introduce costs. One cost is due to extra space
needed to store
the index tree. This storage space has to be allocated in addition to the
space needed to
store the records of the table and corresponding metadata. Another cost is
incurred in
performance. When a record (row) is inserted into or deleted from a table, a
corresponding record must be inserted into or deleted from each index list
defined for that
table. Alternatively, when the value of an indexed field is altered for a
record in the table,
a corresponding record must be altered in the index, which means the database
engine
must delete the index record from one location in the sorted index list and
insert the new
record into another location. Since each index list is a sorted structure,
often in the form
of a tree, these additions or deletions may require a rebalancing of the index
structure.
Thus, while creating a new index improves the performance of specific queries
for which
it is designed, it might degrade the performance of other database operations,
specifically
the performance of insertion, modification and deletion operations. This extra
cost may
be significant for databases where there are many updates in the records.
10009] In database queries, one problem is how to efficiently determine
the position
of an index entry within its index. This problem has been addressed with a
concept
.. referred to here as "positional awareness." Positional awareness is an
index's capability
wherein every index entry knows its relative position within the index. This
capability is
achieved by introducing counters as one of the contents of nodes in the index
tree.
During a look up operation, positional awareness allows the query engine to
quickly
determine the position of any index entry within the index.
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SUMMARY
[0010] The systems and methods described here relate to ways to define
and use
indexes in a database. These methods can have a number of benefits, including
improving insertion rates and reducing query response times.
100111 In one aspect of the present invention, a system and method of
creating
indexes is based on differentiated subfields. This method provides the ability
to
automatically enforce index clustering, and thus optimize disk I/O, by
differentiating
certain types of individual subfields, defined as part of a multi-field
database index, into
major and minor segments.
100121 In another aspect, a query execution system and method implement a
set
function calculation algorithm capable of producing group set function results
with
improved performance, through reducing the number of' records ancUor index
entries read
during the execution of a query.
100131 In yet another aspect, systems and methods are used to define
inferred
indexes for circular tables, utilizing an auto-incremented field of the table.
This type of
index automatically enforces the position of records and provides a preferred
type of
index for the circular tables.
[0014] The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the
invention
will be apparent from the following more particular description of
embodiments,
drawings, and claims.
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BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
100151 FIG. 1 is a pictorial diagram clan Internet based web server
system.
[00161 FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a web server computing system
including an
improved database according to another embodiment of the present invention.
10017] FIG. 3 illustrates a database record included within two indices
used in
searching the database.
100181 FIG. 4 illustrates an example of defining differentiated
subfields from a
field.
100191 FIG. 5 illustrates a set of data in a database table used as an
example for
defining multi-field indexes.
[00201 FIG. 6 illustrates an example of one type of multi-field index
and
corresponding values.
100211 FIG. 7 illustrates an example of another type of multi-field
index and
corresponding values.
100221 FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a multi-field index based on
differentiated
subfields and the corresponding values.
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION
100231 The systems and methods described here can be used in the context
of a web
server system of the type shown in U.S. Patent No. 6,480,839,
or any other database system. Further the systems and methods can be used in
data warehousing, business intelligence applications, and other applications
which deal
with logging, retrieving or manipulating a large body or a continuous stream
of data.
100241 FIG. 1 illustrates an
Internet based web server system that includes a web server 110 that accesses
data stored
on a database storage device 111. Database I 1 1 can be accessed by one or
more users
using web browsers executing within client computers 102-104 and communicating
with
web server 110 over Internet 101. In this embodiment, the client computer 103,
for
example, uses a web browser to communicate using the bttp communications
protocol to
send a URL which includes request information across Internet 101 to web
server 110.
The request information included within the URL typically specifies a database
request.
The web server 110 processes the URL to obtain the database request
information to be
supplied to the database 111 resulting in the invocation of the database
request specified
by the user.
100251 When a database request is complete, web server 110 generates an
HTML
representation of a web page that has data corresponding to a result set
generated when
the database request is applied to database 111. This HTML representation of
the web
page is transmitted back across the Internet 101 to client computer 103 for
display to a
user using the web browser. This process of sending a database request,
generating the
results, generating the HTML web page representation of the results, and
returning the
representation to the user occurs each time a client computer 102-104,
communicates
over the Internet to web server 110.
100261 Client computers can have the components illustrated in FIG. 2.
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100271 FIG. 2 illustrates a web server computing system including a
database that
can include one or more of the indexing features described below. Web server
110 can
include a plurality of processing modules used to receive database requests
from users
over the Internet 101 and to generate results that are formatted as HTML and
transmitted
back to a user. These processing modules may include a web server processing
module
301, a database request processing module 302, and a database index processing
module
303. The web server processing module 301 receives the HTTP request from a
user and
performs all the necessary HTTP processing needed to generate a database
request that is
to be applied to database Ill. This request is then passed to a database
request
processing module 302 in which the request is further processed for
application against
database 111. A part of this processing of the request may include processing
within a
database index processing module 303. In index processing module 303, portions
of the
request may be applied to the database using previously generated indexes. The
indexes
organize and arrange the data within fields and database records in some form
of a
sequential order. Processing module 303 retrieves and stores various database
records
within database 111 as necessary.
100281 Each HTTP request received from a user is processed and has an
individual
separate request used to generate a response. The web server process
simultaneously
processes the plurality of such database requests, and thus, the web server
processing
modules 301-303 operating in a multi-threaded environment permits multiple
requests of
the database to occur simultaneously. These web server processing modules 301-
303
handle conflict detection and resolution processing to permit the simultaneous
reading of
the database while the database may also be modified by a write request.
100291 The Database Request Processing module 302 includes a search
module 311
and a modify module 312. The search module 311 performs the processing
associated
with attempting to locate a request received from a user with data stored
within a field in
the database. This search module 311 interacts with any B*Tree indices that
are used to
assist in the searching of the database. Similarly, the modify module 312
processes write
requests that alter, add, and delete data stored within database 111. These
changes are
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also reflected within data entries within any related indices that assist in
the searching of
the database fields.
100301 FIG. 3 illustrates a database record included within two indices
used in
searching the database. Database engines store a specification of a logical
structure of a
database in a schema. The specific database structure can be specified within
the schema
using the concepts of Table, Field and Index. The schema specifies that the
database has
one or more tables. Each table's specification has a name, and a specification
of the set of
data elements, called fields, that each row stored within the table will
contain. Fields are
specified by a name, and a definition of the characteristics of the data to be
stored within
that field, called the field's type (e.g., fixed length text, variable length
text, whole
numbers, floating point numbers, or large binary data streams). By utilizing
the
specification of the logical structure defined within a schema a database
engine can insure
the integrity of the data contained within the database while providing data
management
services to application programs.
[0031] To help the database engine determine the best way to perform search
operations associated with the tables within a specific database the schema
specifies one
or more indexes. An index specifies that one or more fields of a table will be
used to
search for a row within the table. For each row stored within a table, there
may be an
index entry associated with that row in each index associated with the table.
Additionally, an index's specification tells the database engine whether or
not a duplicate
entry can be added to the index, thus allowing or disallowing the presence of
rows within
the table with a duplicate entry for the corresponding field. Indexes that
allow duplicates
are described as alternate indexes, while those that do not are described as
primary
indexes.
[0032] In FIG. 3, a single row 400 of a database table has a number of
fields, Field
1 (401) through Field 6 (406). In addition, two indices, a first index 411 and
a second
index 412, are shown. First index 411 is based upon Field 2 (402) of the
record, and the
second index 412 is constructed using Field 5 (405). Because Field 2 and Field
5 contain
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different data values, the row's location within the respective indices may be
different. As
with a book, the indexes maintain information relating to where each row is
that has a
certain value.
[00331 The database system can be used in many different types of
systems. One
example is a system that provides high performance network security, analysis,
and
protection, such as the NitroSecurity system with NitroGuard intrusion
prevention system
(IPS); NitroView Receiver for gathering and analyzing security event and
network flow
data from IPSs, firewalls, and other network and security solutions; and Nitro
View
enterprise security manager (ESM) for integrating and reporting network flow
data and
security event data. Such a system can be used for a corporate network or a
campus-wide
network with many users. A security system of this type can require extensive
database
resources to collect and log security events and network flow data from
firewalls, IPSs,
and to access such data to analyze and correlate it for network behavior and
anomaly
analysis. Reports can be generated based upon the significant amounts of
collected data.
100341 Additional systems and methods are described for using indexes to
improve
performance of database operations.
Differentiated Subfields
100351 As is known, indexes can be categorized as clustered or non-
clustered
indexes. Utilizing clustered indexes is a technique used to enhance the
efficiency of
index usage. Every table can have at most one clustered index and as many non-
clustered
indexes as needed. In a clustered index, the data is physically sorted by the
clustered
index, and in fact they are usually stored in the index nodes. Reaching an
index desired
by a query accesses the data for the corresponding record at the same time.
For non-
clustered, or inverted, indexes on the other hand, once the desired index is
found, the data
in the index node provides a link to the physical location of the desired
record. Using a
clustered index in a query thus saves a step in reaching the results. Another
related
concept used in this application is the concept of a "clustering" index. When
using an
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index for a search query, it will be more efficient if the search results are
grouped in
adjacent or close-by nodes in the index tree. The type of index that shows
this convenient
property is referred to here as a "clustering" index. Because the indexed
search reaches
the physical data along with the index, and because, especially in the case of
clustering
indexes, queries often seek contingent records, the query engine can save on
I/O from the
disk by caching records that are contingent to those found in each step of the
query.
Queries that use clustered indexes are thus faster and more efficient in read
operations,
and therefore defining mechanisms that use clustered indexes for queries can
improve
database performance.
100361 The concept refen-ed to here as "differentiated subfields" can be
used to
enforce index clustering, and thus improve disk I/O and search efficiency, by
differentiating subfields of a field, defined as part of a clustered multi-
field database
index, into a major segment and a minor segment, which also represents the
most
significant part and the least significant part of the field (which is made up
of only a most
.. and least significant part without an intermediate part). Major segments
naturally
partition table entries into subsets with a common value for that segment,
such that
members of each subset are distinguished by their values for the minor
segment. For
instance, a "time stamp" field may be divided into a major segment signifying
the "year"
segment of the field, and a minor segment signifying the rest of the time
stamp (from day
.. down to the smallest fraction of time used in the time stamp). As another
example, a
telephone number field may be divided into a major segment signifying the
three leftmost
digits, and a minor segment signifying the next seven digits. Thus for a table
entry with
value of 202-555-1212, the major segment value is 202, and the minor segment
value is
5551212. This entry falls into the subset of entries who share the same major
segment
(202), and is distinguished from other entries in that subset by the value of
its minor
segment (5551212).
[00371 Once a field is differentiated into its major and minor segments,
these
segments can be used to define a multi-field index by inserting one or more
other fields
between them. As such, the segments behave like distinct fields in the index.
This type
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of index is different from traditional multi-field indexes in that the
division of a field into
two or more segments is performed by the database engine and does not require
the
segments to be actual fields in the table. For instance, in the above example
of a time
stamp field, the table need not contain any other specific fields representing
the year or
the other segments of the time.
100381 As an example, the use of differentiated subfields can be
especially useful in
taking advantage of the characteristics of regularly increasing indexed values
such as
"time series' data, which would be used, for example, in a system that logs
events and the
time of those events. The use of differentiated subfields can improve the
performance of
.. insertions, deletions, and queries by as much as several orders of
magnitude for large data
volumes. As an example, in the definition of the contents of a multi-field
database index,
a timestamp field can be differentiated with a date and time, accurate to the
nearest
millisecond, into two separate segments. The system automatically constructs
and
maintains an index with the major segment, representing, for example, the
timestamp
value accurate to the nearest day at the beginning of the multi-field index,
with the
remainder of the date and time, or minor segment, containing the
hour/minute/second/millisecond portion, at the end of the multi-field index.
When the
major segment differentiation is defined for the date/time field of the multi-
field database
index, then a second occurrence of the same date/time field within the same
multi-field
database index will automatically be understood to be due to a new value for
the minor
segment.
100391 FIG. 4 shows an example of a timestamp field divided into major
and minor
segments. The values in the first column (timestamp) are values of the
timestamp field
for some rows in the table, while the values in the second and third columns
correspond
to values for major and minor segments corresponding to each row and saved
implicitly
by the database.
100401 The effect of such differentiated subfields is that index entries
are clustered
by the major segment values of the differentiated subfield while still
retaining the ability
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to perform rapid queries containing specifications needing the more detailed
accuracy of
the timestamp field. In practice, a very large table using such differentiated
subfields will
exhibit higher insertion rates with little or no degradation, even as the
population of a
table becomes very large, while also providing a high degree of responsiveness
to queries.
[00411 This capability can be further illustrated with an example. Consider
a table
named "Parts" including records of parts sold by a company. Assume that the
table
contains at least two fields, one being a complete time stamp (Dtime) of the
sale time and
another being an integer number representing the catalog number of the part
sold
(PartNo) ranging from 1 to 7. FIG. 5 shows an example of a portion of data
inserted in
this table. The first column (Insertion Order) represents the order by which
each row of
this section is inserted in the table, which is the same order as Dtime. This
column will
be used for further analysis, and does not necessarily represent a field in
the table. The
Dtime and PartNo columns represent the values of corresponding fields in each
row.
Assume further that the table is often queried for records with specific part
categories sold
within specific time intervals. In SQL, one example of such a query would be
the
following:
SQL> SELECT PartNo, Dtime
FROM Parts
WHERE PartNo > 3
AND Dtime >= '01/03/2006 00:02:15.456'
AND Dtime < '01/06/2006 23:12:44.123'
100421 To improve the performance of such a query, an index can be
created.
Below are three alternative options for a multi-field database index, in
ascending order of
efficiency. The first two options below (Index 1 and Index 2) are multi-field
database
indexes of the type that are commonly defined for this type of query:
Index 1 PartNo + Dtime
Index 2 Dtime + PartNo
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100431 Index 1 is the choice that comes to mind because the order
presented in the
query seeks PartNo first. It sorts the records first based on PartNo and then
based on
Dtime. Index 2, on the other hand, sorts the records first based on Dtime and
then based
on PartNo. The following multi-field database index uses differentiated
subfields based
on time:
Index 3 Dtimel + PartNo+ Dtime2
[0044] Here, Dtimel is a major time segment differentiated by day;
Dtime2 is the
minor time segment with the remainder of the date/time accurate to the nearest
millisecond. In other situations or for a different query, the times could be
segmented
differently, in accordance with the structure of the query and the nature of
the data, to
achieve optimum efficiency.
100451 FIG. 6 shows the values of index 1 for the data presented in FIG.
5. The
rows are sorted by the values of Index 1, which is the order in which they
will appear in
the index tree in the database. The value of the Insertion Order column for
each row is
identical to the value of the same column for the corresponding rows in FIG. 5
and
represent the relative order in which the row was inserted in the table and
thus the order
in which the index values are inserted in the index tree. FIGS. 7 and 8 show a
similar
table for the values of Index 2 and Index 3, respectively. Also in FIGS. 6 to
8, the values
that are sought by the above query are marked in bold. As can be inferred from
FIGS. 6
and 7, for a table with a very large population. both Index 1 and Index 2
would require the
index to inspect large amounts of candidates to find records within the
specified time
range. This can be seen from the fact that the desired (bold) data are
scattered throughout
the sorted index. Between the two, Index I shows less scatter in the desired
data due to
small range of values for the first field (PartNo), but this Index would
further be
characterized by a slow insertion rate because it represents the least
clustered option.
This deficiency can be inferred from the large rate of fluctuation in the
values of Insertion
Order which shows that as the table grows, new data are inserted all over the
index tree.
Index 2, which by definition is sorted by time, shows the highest ordering,
but the large
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amount of scatter in the queried (bold) data causes it to be slow in finding
the results of
the query. Index 3 takes advantage of time series data clustering, coupled
with multiple
conditions, allowing a query processing system to inspect a much smaller
number of
tightly clustered candidate entries, and results in significant reductions in
query execution
time. These facts can be inferred from the example in FIG. 8, in which the
queried (bold)
data are grouped together. Moreover the values of Insertion Order in the
example of FIG.
8 show that new insertions consistently occur in a portion of the tree located
around the
end, which increases the efficiency of data insertion when using this index.
In practice,
the query could be several orders of magnitude faster when using Index 3
compared to
Index 1 or Index 2. If the query were requesting a time range on an even day
boundary,
Index 3 would be even faster, because the query processing system would not
interrogate
the minor segment of the differentiated subfield at all.
[0046] It is generally advisable to design a multi-field database index
that uses
differentiated subfields so that the minor segment of the differentiated
subfield is the last
field of the multi-field index. Thus, in Index 3, the minor segment of the
date/time field
(Dtime2) is at the end following the PartNo field, which in this case would
likely be is an
integer field with a relatively small finite set of possible values (compared
to the
possibilities of the minor component of time).
100471 A factor that can affect the performance of the database is the
selection of
the differentiation level; for example, in the timestamp case, whether to
segment the time
by year, month, day, hour, or otherwise. An improved, or even optimal,
selection
depends on the number of entries within the major segment range and upon the
selected
index cache characteristics (keys per node and nodes in memory). Optimal
insertion
should occur when the number of entries in a major segment range can be
entirely
contained in memory. If the major segment were defined to differentiate by
day, then the
number of entries expected within a day's period of time should be able to be
cached
within the index nodes in memory. If a large amount of data is expected for
each day,
then differentiating by hour may yield better results. Queries against such an
index
become slower as the ratio between the selected time range for the query with
respect to
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the major segment's differentiation unit get larger. For example, a query
requesting data
for a six month period of time will yield faster results when the major
segment of an
index represents months, slower when it is measured in days, and still slower
when
measured in hours.
[00481 For large volume database tables, in order to maintain clustering
and
efficiency, and to reduce the randomness in the values of new entries for a
field used in an
index, it can be advisable, albeit counter intuitive, to design all table
indexes using a
differentiated subfield of either a numerically increasing value (i.e., auto-
increment field)
or a "time series" field (i.e., timestamp). Doing so can improve the
efficiency of those
indexes, especially during insertion of new entries. For example, an index of
just SSN
(Social Security Number) could be changed to a differentiated multi-field
database index
composed of Time0 + SSN + Time I.
100491 As suggested above, one application of differentiated subfields,
particularly
with respect to timestamping, is an electronic or intemet system in which
there is a
constant flow of data corresponding to events, saved along with their time
stamps, and
frequently queried by specific characteristics of the events as well as the
corresponding
timestamp. In such systems, efficiency in retrieving data in a reasonable time
is highly
desirable. In the area of anomaly detection, for example, it can be useful to
analyze the
propagation of an event by time.
10050) The division of a field into two subfields is one case of more
general
versions of a differentiated subfield method, where an index can be defined by
dividing a
field into more than two sub fields and inserting other fields of query in
between them. In
all these cases, the mechanism explained above can be utilized in defining the
appropriate
subfields, and the appropriate order of the fields inserted among them to
provide the best
performance based on specific query, the nature of the field, the
characteristics of the
actual stored data, and characteristics of the query system.
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Set Function Calculations
[0051] One common type of query in databases is a class referred to as
set function
calculations. Set functions are powerful and often use features of the
relational database
query language known as Structured Query Language (SQL). These functions
perform a
computation on a set of values rather than on a single value. Examples of such
functions
include COUNT, AVG, SUM, MIN, and MAX (which are self explanatory).
Furthermore, SQL can be used to succinctly specify groupings of data, also
known as
aggregates, and to calculate set functions within each group. In this case,
the set
functions are commonly called aggregate functions. Since set function
calculations are
often an explicit or implicit part of operations performed on databases,
enhancing the
efficiency of their calculation is desirable for improving the overall
efficiency of the
database. As is the case for many query operations, the proper design of a
specific
database's indexes, the capabilities of the database engine's indexing system,
and the use
of database indexes by the database engine's query execution system can all be
factors in
the speed at which grouped set functions can be calculated.
10052) A typical design goal of a high volume relational database's
query execution
system is minimizing the amount of disk 1/0 required to answer a query,
because disk 1/0
is much slower than many other processes (like access to a memory cache). The
query
execution system discussed here implements a set function calculation
algorithm capable
of producing group set function aggregation results more quickly by reducing
the number
of records and/or index entries that must be read during the execution of a
query. This set
function calculation algorithm takes advantage of index capabilities including
positional
awareness and differentiated subfields, each described above.
[0053] The following example illustrates how the set function
calculation algorithm
described here can be used. Assume a database has a last name field (lastName)
defined
for a table ("Names"), and that the field is indexed. Further, assume that an
SQL
SELECT statement is submitted to the query execution system that requires the
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calculation of the number of records in the table with a last name field value
of "Smith".
An example of such a query will look like the following:
SQL> SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Names
WHERE lastName = "Smith";
100541 The following steps will be used to calculate the COUNT set
function in this
example.
1. Find the first index entry where the last name is "Smith".
2. Get the index relative position of the index entry found (e.g., 1000).
3. Find the first index value where the last name is greater than "Smith".
4. Get the index relative position of the index entry found (e.g., 2200).
5. Calculate the difference between the two relative positions (i.e. 1200 in
this example).
100551 Using this algorithm, a query execution system can calculate SQL
set
functions in less time than other algorithms, even orders of magnitude less
because
individual records need not be read and counted.
100561 By properly defining multi-field database indexes, a query
execution system
can use this basic algorithm to rapidly produce results for much more
complicated
queries. For example, an SQL query could specify "GROUP BY SomeField" and find
the COUNT of each group in records of a table called SomeTable. A generic SQL
query
for performing this function could appear as follows:
SQL> SELECT SomeField, COUNT (*)
FROM SomeTable
GROUP BY SomeField;
[0057] In this case, SorneTable could be Names, and SomeField could be
lastName,
so the query would count how many people have each last name. To improve
performance, an index would be specified that begins with SomeField. The query
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execution system would simply "hop" through the index, repeating the set
function
calculation algorithm described above for each unique value of SomeField. In
so doing,
the query execution system will read index entries only, not records, and
minimize the
number of index entries read. This algorithm results in a reduced number of
index reads,
no record reads, a reduced number of disk 1/0 operations, and an improved
query
execution speed.
10058] A variation on the basic set function calculation algorithm is
exemplified by
a SQL SELECT statement that specifies the need for the "SUM(SomeNum)" and
"GROUP BY SomeField", where SomeNum could be any numerical value present as a
field or derived from the fields of the table (e.g. Count). For example,
SomeField can
again be lastName and SomeNum could be salary, and the result of calculating
this
function will be a list of all distinct lastNames in the table along with the
total salary for
each last name group. In this situation, an index is specified that starts
with SomeField
+SomeNum. The query execution system can "hop" through the index using the
basic set
function calculation algorithm, but this time for each unique combination of
SomeField
+SomeNum, it can multiply the SomeNum by the number of index entries and add
the
result to the SUM for that unique value of SomeField. Once again, the query
execution
system will read index entries only, not records themselves, and reduce the
number of
index entries read, resulting in a reduced number of index reads, a reduced
number of
disk 1/0 operations, and an improved query execution speed.
100591 By the simple combination of the basic set function calculation
algorithm
with available primary arithmetic and non-arithmetic functions, the query
execution
system can calculate SQL SET functions (i.e., MIN, MAX, AVG, etc.) with
minimal
execution times. Even if records are continually being inserted at high rates
during the
execution of a query, the fact that the set function calculation algorithm
only reads index
entries and minimizes those reads insures that query execution will be fast
even during
high insertion loads.
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[0060] As another example of the usage of the set function calculation
algorithm,
consider a slightly more complicated SQL SELECT query that adds WHERE
predicates
that limit the valid records of interest to a specified time range (e.g.,
WHERE TimeStamp
>= StartTime AND TimeStamp < EndTime.) An example of such a query written in
SQL is:
SQL> SELECT SomeField, COUNT (*)
FROM SomeTable
WHERE TimeStamp >= StartTime
AND TimeStamp <= EndTime;
GROUP BY SomeField;
[0061] In this case, an index would be specified that uses
differentiated subfields,
e.g., MajorSegment(TimeStamp) + SomeField + MinorSegment(TimeStamp). The query
execution system can hop through the index using the basic set function
calculation
algorithm, but this time the process hops on MajorSegment(TimeStamp) +
SomeField
boundaries, automatically benefiting from the clustered nature of the
differentiated
subfield, and realizes efficiency benefits for such a complex query. In
addition to
reducing disk I/O as a result of the hopping on MajorSegment(TimeStamp) +
SomeField
boundaries, the query execution system will read index entries only and reduce
the
number of index entries read, resulting in reducing the number of index reads,
reducing
the number of disk I/O operations, and improving the query execution speed.
100621 Another application of this process enables utilizing multi-field
indexes that
were not originally designed for a specific query and include extraneous
field(s)
preceding the field(s) of interest. The costs associated with other commonly
used SET
function processes when there is an extraneous index component, within a multi-
field
index, that precedes the components of interest to a query are so high that
database
processing systems will typically disqualify the use of the index.
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100631 For example, suppose an index is composed of
LastName+FirstName+Sex+Age, and there is the following query:
SQL> SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM SomeTable
WHERE FirstName = 'John'
AND Age > 21
In this example, the combination of unique LastName values, with qualifying
FirstName
values and unique Sex values, defines the number of times a COUNT SET function
.. algorithm would be applied in order to calculate the count specified by the
query.
100641 Typically databases will disqualify such an index because the
total cost of
using conventional COUNT SET function algorithms this many times is greater
than
doing a full table scan to get the answer. However, because of the vast
improvement in
SET function calculation performance provided by the algorithm described
above,
executing the COUNT SET function this many times is often considerably less
costly
than a table scan, hence the index is not disqualified and the query is
executed, using the
index, much faster than calculating the answer with a full table scan.
Dynamic Data Distribution Aggregation
100651 The invention also includes systems and methods in systems with a
B*tree
index for reducing the time to calculate an aggregate of data values
associated with a
range of index entries. The system accomplishes this by managing aggregate
values
within the data stored in the entries of the index during insertion,
modification and
deletion operations, and by providing new index operations to generate
aggregate values
associated with a range of index entries. These methods implement these
operations such
.. that multiple simultaneous operations can be executed efficiently. The use
of the term
"aggregate" in this section refers to a functional combination. It would apply
to a sum,
but also to other combinations including a product, sum of squares, etc.
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100661 In one example,
assume there is an index of "last name, age" and further
assume that one is interested in the average age of people with a certain last
name. This
average can be determined by knowing the sum of all ages of people with the
last name of
interest and the number of people with the last name of interest. AS indicated
above, the
system provides methods for quickly identifying the number of people with the
last name
of interest (see "Smith" example above). In addition, an aggregate is provided
for the
index to perform a sum on the ages of any people with the same last name. In
each index
entry, the system maintains an aggregate value that represents the sum of the
ages of all
index entries above and including the index entry, in sorted order, which is
updated
during insert, delete and modification operations.
100671 By maintaining,
in each index entry, an aggregate value for the sum of the
ages above, and including, the entry, and using a process similar to the COUNT
process,
the system can quickly determine the sum of all ages for any last name. For
example, the
system can find a first index entry where the last name is "Smith," and the
index
aggregate indicates that all entries before, and including, the found entry
have a total sum
of ages of SUM_AGE_1. Additionally, the index relative position of the found
index
entry is determined (e.g., 1000). The system then finds the first index value
where the
last name is greater than "Smith" and gets the index relative position of the
index entry
found (e.g., 2200) and a value of SUM_AGE_2, the sum of all ages up to and
including
the found entry. The total age of all "Smiths" is SUM_AGE2 minus SUM_AGE_1,
and
the number of Smiths is the difference between the two relative positions
(i.e., 1200 in
this example). From this information, the average is quickly determined.
[00681 As another example, the database could include sales records of a
business.
Business analysts could want to know the standard deviation of item dollar
amounts for
point-of-sale line item records for any item product category for all
available data. Using
the present application, and regardless of the number of point-of-sale
records, one can
calculate the instantaneous item product standard deviation value desired for
any item
product category with only two index searches. By maintaining a product
category index
with an aggregate value for the sum of the squares of the index entry dollar
amounts of all
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entries above, and including, a particular entry, and using a process similar
to the
COUNT process, the system can quickly determine the calculation.
100691 Furthermore, the methods identified here allow such calculations
to occur
while simultaneously inserting, deleting, and/or modifying the index. Other
known
techniques require a time consuming record scanning process, or a pre-
calculation of the
desired values, which does not reflect any timely changes within the point-of-
sale item
record set or a dynamic change in value aggregation granularity (e.g., by
product group,
by product sub-category).
Circular Table with Inferred Index
10070] An inferred index associated with a circular table can be introduced
as a
database index composed solely of an auto-increment field. A circular table is
a
relational database table that has a fixed defined maximum number of records,
each with
a defined fixed size, that can be contained within the table at any one time.
A circular
table reuses the oldest record currently stored within the table whenever it
needs to make
room within the table for another record, and the total number of records ever
inserted
into the table has exceeded the fixed defined maximum number of records. A
circular
table can be viewed as a circular cache of records arranged in chronological
order of
insertion. Circular tables can be used for a variety of applications,
including event
logging, time series recording, and information gathering. They do not run the
risk of
overflowing, and do not need regular downtimes to perform archiving of old
data,
garbage collection, or similar maintenance operations associated with other
types of
tables used for dynamic applications with constant data input.
(0071] Database indexes associated with a circular table are similar to
other
database indexes except for the case of a database index containing a single
automatically
incrementing field. If this type of field is defined for such a circular
table, it need not be
indexed at all. It is referred to as an inferred index, because it is still
treated as an index
by the system and has all the properties of a normal database index from the
point of view
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of query utilization. It can be the fastest of the indexes associated with its
table since it
requires no additional insertion time and its use in a query is more desirable
than most
other index types. This is possible because the system automatically enforces
the position
of records in a circular table with respect to its auto-increment field if one
exists. In other
words the auto-increment field is used as a clustered index.
[00721 One possible implementation of an inferred index is to keep track
of the
auto-increment field value of the currently first record stored within the
circular table, and
to use this value in conjunction with the fact that records are a fixed size
to calculate the
byte position within the table of the record of interest. For example, suppose
one knows
that the auto-increment field value of the first record within a circular
table is 20, and that
the size of each record is 10 bytes. If one wishes to read the record within
the circular
table whose auto-increment value is 30 the database system would simply
calculate the
offset of desired record by using the calculation (30-20)*10, which is the
difference
between auto-increment field values of the desired and the first records times
the record
size in bytes. Starting at this offset position, the system will then read 10
bytes, the size
of one record. Special cases exist for auto-increment field value requests
less than the
value of the currently first record, greater than the greatest value, and
records that have
been deleted within the table.
Conclusion
[0073] In view of the wide variety of embodiments to which the principles
of the
present invention can be applied, it should be understood that the illustrated
embodiments
are exemplary only, and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the
present
invention. For example, the steps of the flow diagrams may be taken in
sequences other
than those described, and more or fewer elements may be used in the diagrams.
While
various elements of the preferred embodiments have been described as being
implemented in software, other embodiments in hardware of firmware
implementations
may alternatively be used, and vice-versa.
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100741 It will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that
methods described
above can be embodied in a computer program product that includes a computer
usable
medium. For example, such a computer usable medium can include a readable
memory
device, such as, a hard drive device, a CD-ROM, a DVD-ROM, or a computer
diskette,
having computer readable program code segments stored thereon. The computer
readable
medium can also include a communications or transmission medium, such as, a
bus or a
communications link, either optical, wired, or wireless having program code
segments
carried thereon as digital or analog data signals.
100751 Other aspects, modifications, and embodiments are within the scope
of the
following claims,
