Note : Les descriptions sont présentées dans la langue officielle dans laquelle elles ont été soumises.
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SPECTRAL CHEMISTRY
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND PATENT
This Application is a Continuation-In-Part of U. S. Provisional Application
Serial
No. 60/231,620, entitled, A Frequency Based Theory Of Catalysts, which was
filed
September 1 l, 2000.This Application is also a Continuation-In-Part of
copending U. S.
Patent Application Serial No. 09/919,679, entitled, Spectral Catalysts, filed
August 1, 2001,
which is a Continuation of U. S. Patent Application Serial No. 09/460,025,
entitled Spectral
Catalysts, filed December 13, 1999, now abandoned, which is a Divisional of U.
S. Patent
Application Serial No. 09/098,883, originally filed on June 17, 1998, now U.
S. Patent No.
6,033,531, which issued on March 7, 2000, which claims the benefit of U.S.
Provisional
Application Serial No., 60/049,910, entitled, Spectral Catalysts, filed June
18, 1997. This
Application also claims the benefit of U. S. Provisional Application Serial
No. 601049,910.
The subject matter of all of the above-identified Patent Applications and
Patent are hereby
expressly incorporated by reference.
TECHNICAL FIELD
This invention relates to a novel method to affect, control and/or direct a
reaction
pathway (e.g., organic, inorganic, biologic or other reaction) by, for
example, exposing one or
more participants in a reaction system to at least one spectral energy pattern
(e.g., at least one
spectral pattern comprising at least one frequency of electromagnetic
radiation) which can be
made to correspond to at least a portion of a spectral catalyst or a spectral
energy catalyst.
The invention also relates to mimicking various mechanisms of action of
various catalysts in
reaction systems under various environmental reaction conditions. The
invention further
discloses methods for simulating, at least partially, one or more
environmental reaction
conditions by the application of one or more spectral environmental reaction
conditions. The
invention specifically discloses different means for achieving the matching of
energy
frequencies between, for example, applied energy and matter (e.g., solids,
liquids, gases,
' plasmas and/or combinations or portions thereofj, to achieve energy transfer
to, for example,
at least one participant in a reaction system by taking into account various
energy
considerations in the reaction system. The invention also discloses an
approach for designing
or determining appropriate physical catalysts) to be used in a reaction
system.
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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Chemical reactions are driven by energy. The energy comes in many different
forms including chemical, thermal, mechanical, acoustic, and electromagnetic.
Various
features of each type of energy are thought to contribute in different ways to
the driving of
S chemical reactions. Irrespective of the type of energy involved, chemical
reactions are
undeniably and inextricably intertwined with the transfer and combination of
energy. An
understanding of energy is, therefore, vital to an understanding of chemical
reactions.
A chemical reaction can be controlled and/or directed either by the addition
of
energy to the reaction medium in the form of thermal, mechanical, acoustic
and/or
electromagnetic energy or by means of transferring energy through a physical
catalyst.
These methods are traditionally not that energy efficient and can produce, for
example,
either unwanted by-products, decomposition of required transients, and/or
intermediates
and/or activated complexes andlor insufficient quantities of preferred
products of a reaction.
It has been generally believed that chemical reactions occur as a result of
collisions
between reacting molecules. In terms of the collision theory of chemical
kinetics, it has
been expected that the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the
number of the
molecular collisions per second:
rate a number of collisions/sec
This simple relationship explains the dependence of reaction rates on
concentration.
Additionally, with few exceptions, reaction rates have been believed to
increase with
increasing temperature because of increased collisions.
The dependence of the rate constant k of a reaction can be expressed by the
following
equation, known as the Arrhenius equation:
k= Ae -EST
where EQ is the activation energy of the reaction which is the minimum amount
of energy
required to initiate a chemical reaction, R is the gas constant, T is the
absolute temperature
and a is the base of the natural logarithm scale. The quantity A represents
the collision rate
and shows that the rate constant is directly proportional to A and, therefore,
to the collision
rate. Furthermore, because of the minus sign associated with the exponent
EalRT, the rate
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constant decreases with increasing activation energy and increases with
increasing
temperature.
Normally, only a small fraction of the colliding molecules, typically the
fastest
moving ones, have enough kinetic energy to exceed the activation energy,
therefore, the
increase in the rate constant k can now be explained with the temperature
increase. Since
more high-energy molecules are present at a higher temperature, the rate of
product formation
is also greater at the higher temperature. But, with increased temperatures
there are a number
of problems which are introduced into the reaction system. With thermal
excitation other
competing processes, such as bond rupture, may occur before the desired energy
state can be
reached. Also, there are a number of decomposition products which often
produce fragments
that are extremely reactive, but they can be so short-lived because of their
thermodynamic
instability, that a preferred reaction may be dampened.
Radiant or light energy is another form of energy that may be added to the
reaction
medium that also may have negative side effects but which may be different
from (or the
same as) those side effects from thermal energy. Addition of radiant energy to
a system
produces electronically excited molecules that are capable of undergoing
chemical reactions.
A molecule in which all the electrons are in stable orbitals is said to be in
the ground
electronic state. These orbitals may be either bonding or non-bonding. If a
photon of the
proper energy collides with the molecule the photon may be absorbed and one of
the
electrons may be promoted to an unoccupied orbital of higher energy.
Electronic excitation
results in spatial redistribution of the valence electrons with concomitant
changes in
internuclear configurations. Since chemical reactions are controlled to a
great extent by these
factors, an electronically excited molecule undergoes a chemical reaction that
may be
distinctly different from those of its ground-state counterpart.
The energy of a photon is defined in terms of its frequency or wavelength,
E=hv=hc/~
where E is energy; h is Plank's constant, 6.6 x 10-34 J~sec; v is the
frequency of the radiation,
sec'; c is the speed of light; and 7~ is the wavelength of the radiation. When
a photon is
absorbed, all of its energy is imparted to the absorbing species. The primary
act following
absorption depends on the wavelength of the incident light. Photochemistry
studies photons
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whose energies lie in the ultraviolet region (100-4000 ~) and in the visible
region (4000-
7000~r) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such photons are primarily a cause of
electronically excited molecules.
Since the molecules are imbued with electronic energy upon absorption of
light,
reactions occur from different potential-energy surfaces from those
encountered in thermally
excited systems. However, there are several drawbacks of using the known
techniques of
photochemistry, that being, utilizing a broad band of frequencies thereby
causing unwanted
side reactions, undue experimentation, and poor quantum yield. Some good
examples of
photochemistry are shown in the following patents.
In particular, U. S. Patent No. 5, 174,877 issued to Cooper, et. al., (1992)
discloses an
apparatus for the photocatalytic treatment of liquids. In particular, it is
disclosed that
ultraviolet light irradiates the surface of a prepared slurry to activate the
photocatalytic
properties of the particles contained in the slurry. The transparency of the
slurry affects, for
example, absorption of radiation. Moreover, discussions of different
frequencies suitable for
1 S achieving desirable photocatalytic activity are disclosed.
Further, U. S. Patent No. 4,755,269 issued to Brumer, et. al., (1998)
discloses a
photodisassociation process for disassociating various molecules in a known
energy level. In
particular, it is disclosed that different disassociation pathways are
possible and the different
pathways can be followed due to selecting different frequencies of certain
electromagnetic
radiation. It is further disclosed that the amplitude of electromagnetic
radiation applied
corresponds to amounts of product produced.
Selective excitation of different species is shown in the following three (3)
patents.
Specifically, U. S. Patent No. 4,012,301 to Rich, et. al., (1977) discloses
vapor phase
chemical reactions that are selectively excited by using vibrational modes
corresponding to
the continuously flowing reactant species. Particularly, a continuous wave
laser emits
radiation that is absorbed by the vibrational mode of the reactant species.
U. S. Patent No. 5,215,634 issued to Wan, et al., (1993) discloses a process
of
selectively converting methane to a desired oxygenate. In particular, methane
is irradiated in
the presence of a catalyst with pulsed microwave radiation to convert
reactants to desirable
products. The physical catalyst disclosed comprises nickel and the microwave
radiation is
applied in the range of about 1.5 to 3.0 GHz.
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U. S. Patent No. 5,015,349 issued to Suib, et. al., (1991) discloses a method
for
cracking a hydrocarbon to create cracked reaction products. It is disclosed
that a stream of
hydrocarbon is exposed to a microwave energy which creates a low power density
microwave discharge plasma, wherein the microwave energy is adjusted to
achieve desired
results. A particular frequency desired of microwave energy is disclosed as
being 2.45 GHz.
Physical catalysts are well known in the art. Specifically, a physical
catalyst is a
substance which alters the reaction rate of a chemical reaction without
appearing in the end
product. It is known that some reactions can be speeded up or controlled by
the presence of
substances which themselves appear to remain unchanged after the reaction has
ended. By
increasing the velocity of a desired reaction relative to unwanted reactions,
the formation of a
desired product can be maximized compared with unwanted by-products. Often
only a trace
of physical catalyst is necessary to accelerate the reaction. Also, it has
been observed that
some substances, which if added in trace amounts, can slow down the rate of a
reaction. This
looks like the reverse of catalysis, and, in fact, substances which slow down
a reaction rate
have been called negative catalysts or poisons. Known physical catalysts go
through a cycle
in which they are used and regenerated so that they can be used again and
again. A physical
catalyst operates by providing another path for the reaction which can have a
higher reaction
rate or slower rate than available in the absence of the physical catalyst. At
the end of the
reaction, because the physical catalyst can be recovered, it appears the
physical catalyst is not
involved in the reaction. But, the physical catalyst must somehow take part in
the reaction, or
else the rate of the reaction would not change. The catalytic act has
historically been
represented by five essential steps originally postulated by Ostwald around
the late 1800's:
1. Diffusion to the catalytic site (reactant);
2. Bond formation at the catalytic site (reactant);
3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;
4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and
S. Diffusion away from the catalytic site (product).
The exact mechanisms of catalytic actions are unknown in the art but it is
known that
physical catalysts can speed up a reaction that otherwise would take place too
slowly to be
practical.
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There are a number of problems involved with known industrial catalysts:
firstly,
physical catalysts can not only lose their efficiency but also their
selectivity, which can occur
due to, for example, overheating or contamination of the catalyst; secondly,
many physical
catalysts include costly metals such as platinum or silver and have only a
limited life span,
some are difficult to rejuvenate, and the precious metals not easily
reclaimed. There are
numerous physical limitations associated with physical catalysts which render
them less than
ideal participants in many reactions.
Accordingly, what is needed is an understanding of the catalytic process so
that
biological processing, chemical processing, industrial processing, etc., can
be engineered by
more precisely controlling the multitude of reaction processes that currently
exist, as well as
developing completely new reaction pathways and/or reaction products. Examples
of such
understandings include methods to catalyze reactions without the drawbacks o~
( 1 ) known
physical catalysts; and (2) utilizing energy with much greater specificity
than the prior art
teachings which utilize less than ideal thermal and electromagnetic radiation
methods and
1 S which result in numerous inefficiencies.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
Definitions
For purposes of this invention, the terms and expressions below, appearing in
the
Specification and Claims, are intended to have the following meanings:
"Activated complex", as used herein, means the assembly of atoms) (charged or
neutral) which corresponds to the maximum in the reaction profile describing
the
transformation of reactants) into reaction product(s). Either the reactant or
reaction product
in this definition could be an intermediate in an overall transformation
involving more than
one step.
"Applied spectral energy pattern", as used herein, means the totality of (a)
all
spectral energy patterns that are externally applied; and/or (b) spectral
environmental reaction
conditions input into a reaction system.
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"Catalytic spectral energy pattern", as used herein, means at least a portion
of a
spectral energy pattern of a physical catalyst which when applied to a
reaction system in the
form of a beam or field can catalyze the reaction system.
"Catalytic spectral pattern", as used herein, means at least a portion of a
spectral
pattern of a physical catalyst which when applied to a reaction system can
catalyze the
reaction system by the following:
a) completely replacing a physical chemical catalyst;
b) acting in unison with a physical chemical catalyst to increase the rate of
reaction;
c) reducing the rate of reaction by acting as a negative catalyst; or
d) altering the reaction pathway for formation of a specific reaction product.
"Direct resonance targeting", as used herein, means the application of energy
to a
reaction system by at least one of the following spectral energy providers:
spectral energy
catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern;
catalytic spectral energy
pattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and
spectral environmental
reaction conditions, to achieve direct resonance with at least one of the
following forms of
matter: reactants; transients; intermediates; activated complexes; physical
catalysts; reaction
products; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst support materials;
reaction vessels;
and/or mixtures or components thereof, said spectral energy providers
providing energy to at
least one of said forms of matter by interacting with at least one frequency
thereof, excluding
electronic and vibrational frequencies in said reactants, to produce at least
one desired
reaction product and/or at least one desired reaction product at a desired
reaction rate.
"Environmental reaction condition", as used herein, means and includes
traditional
reaction variables such as temperature, pressure, surface area of catalysts,
physical catalyst
size and shape, solvents, physical catalyst support materials, poisons,
promoters,
concentrations, electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magnetic fields,
mechanical forces,
acoustic fields, reaction vessel size, shape and composition and combinations
thereof, etc.,
which may be present and are capable of influencing, positively or negatively,
reaction
pathways in a reaction system.
"Frequency", as used herein, means the number of times which a physical event
(e.g.,
wave, field and/or motion) varies from the equilibrium value through a
complete cycle in a
unit of time (e.g., one second; and one cycle/sec = 1 Hz). The variation from
equilibrium can
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be positive and/or negative, and can be, for example, symmetrical, asyW
metrical and/or
proportional with regard to the equilibrium value.
"Harmonic targeting", as used herein, means the application of energy to a
reaction
system by at least one of the following spectral energy providers: spectral
energy catalyst;
spectral catalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic
spectral energy pattern;
catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern and spectral
environmental reaction
conditions, to achieve harmonic resonance, with at least one of the following
forms of matter:
reactants; transients; intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts;
reaction
products; promoters, poisons; solvents; physical catalyst support materials;
reaction vessels;
and/or mixtures or components thereof, said spectral energy providers
providing energy to at
least one of said forms of matter by interacting with at least one frequency
thereof, excluding
electronic and vibrational frequencies in said reactants, to produce at least
one desired
reaction product and/or at least one desired reaction product at a desired
reaction rate.
"Intermediate", as used herein, means a molecule, ion and/or atom which is
present
between a reactant and a reaction product in a reaction pathway or reaction
profile. It
corresponds to a minimum in the reaction profile of the reaction between
reactant and
reaction product. A reaction which involves an intermediate is typically a
stepwise reaction.
"Non-harmonic heterodyne targeting", as used herein, means the application of
energy to a reaction system by at least one of the following spectral energy
providers:
spectral energy catalyst; spectral catalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral
pattern; catalytic
spectral energy pattern; catalytic spectral pattern; applied spectral energy
pattern and spectral
environmental reaction condition to achieve non-harmonic heterodyne resonance
with at least
one of the following forms of matter: reactants; transients; intermediates;
activated
complexes; physical catalysts; reaction products; promoters; poisons;
solvents; physical
catalyst support materials; reaction vessels; and/or mixtures or components
thereof, said
spectral energy provider providing energy to at least one of said forms of
matter by
interacting with at least one frequency thereof, to produce at least one
desired reaction
product andlor at least one desired reaction product at a desired reaction
rate.
"Participant", as used herein, means reactant, transient, intermediate,
activated
complex, physical catalyst, promoter, poison and/or reaction product comprised
of molecules,
ions and/or atoms (or components thereof).
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"Reactant", as used herein, means a starting material or starting component in
a
reaction system. A reactant can be any inorganic, organic and/or biologic
atom, molecule,
ion, compound, substance, and/or the like.
"Reaction coordinate", as used herein, means an intra- or inter-molecular/atom
configurational variable whose change corresponds to the conversion of
reactant into reaction
product.
"Reaction pathway", as used herein, means those steps which lead to the
formation
of reaction product(s). A reaction pathway may include intermediates and/or
transients
and/or activated complexes. A reaction pathway may include some or all of a
reaction
profile.
"Reaction product", as used herein, means any product of a reaction involving
a
reactant. A reaction product may have a different chemical composition from a
reactant or a
substantially similar (or exactly the same) chemical composition but exhibit a
different
physical or crystalline structure and/or phase.
"Reaction profile", as used herein means a plot of energy (e.g., molecular
potential
energy, molar enthalpy, or free energy) against reaction coordinate for the
conversion of
reactants) into reaction product(s).
"Reaction system", as used herein, means the combination of reactants,
intermediates, transients, activated complexes, physical catalysts, poisons,
promoters, spectral
catalysts, spectral energy catalysts, reaction products, environmental
reaction conditions,
spectral environmental reaction conditions, applied spectral energy pattern,
etc., that are
involved in any reaction pathway.
"Resultant energy pattern", as used herein, means the totality of energy
interactions
between the applied spectral energy pattern with all participants and/or
components in the
reaction systems.
"Spectral catalyst", as used herein, means electromagnetic energy which acts
as a
catalyst in a reaction system, for example, electromagnetic energy having a
spectral pattern
which affects, controls, or directs a reaction pathway.
"Spectral energy catalyst", as used herein, means energy which acts as a
catalyst in a
reaction system having a spectral energy pattern which affects, controls
and/or directs a
reaction pathway.
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"Spectral energy pattern", as used herein, means a pattern formed by one or
more
energies and/or components emitted or absorbed by a molecule, ion, atom and/or
components) thereof and/or which is present by andJor within a molecule, ion,
atom andlor
components) thereof.
"Spectral environmental reaction condition", as used herein, means at least
one
frequency andlor field which simulates at least a portion of at least one
environmental
reaction condition in a reaction system.
"Spectral pattern", as used herein, means a pattern formed by one or more
electromagnetic frequencies emitted or absorbed after excitation of an atom or
molecule. A
spectral pattern may be formed by any known spectroscopic technique.
"Targeting", as used herein, means the application of energy to a reaction
system by
at least one of the following spectral energy providers: spectral energy
catalyst; spectral
catalyst; spectral energy pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy
pattern; catalytic
spectral pattern; applied spectral energy pattern; and spectral environmental
reaction
conditions, to achieve direct resonance and/or harmonic resonance and/or non-
harmonic
heterodyne-resonance with at least one of the following forms of matter:
reactants;
transients; intermediates; activated complexes; physical catalysts; reaction
products;
promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst support materials; reaction
vessels; and/or
mixtures or components thereof, said spectral energy provider providing energy
to at least
one of said forms of matter by interacting with at least one frequency
thereof, to produce at
least one desired reaction product and/or at least one desired reaction
product at a desired
reaction rate.
"Transient", as used herein, means any chemical and/or physical state that
exists
between reactants) and reaction products) in a reaction pathway or reaction
profile.
This invention overcomes many of the deficiencies associated with the use of
various known physical catalysts in a variety of different environments. More
importantly,
this invention, for the first time ever, discloses a variety of novel spectral
energy techniques,
referred to sometimes herein as spectral chemistry, that can be utilized in a
number of
reactions, including very basic reactions, which may be desirable to achieve
or to permit to
occur in a virtually unlimited number of areas. These spectral energy
techniques can be
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used in, for example, any types of biological reactions (i.e., plant and
animal), physical
reactions, chemical reactions (i.e., organic or inorganic) industrial (i.e.,
any industrial
reactions of large scale or small scale), and/or energy reactions of any type,
etc.
These novel spectral energy techniques (now referred to as spectral chemistry)
are
possible to achieve due to the fundamental discoveries contained herein that
disclose various
means for achieving the transfer of energy between, for example, two entities.
The invention
teaches that the key for transferring energy between two entities (e.g., one
entity sharing
energy with another entity) is that when frequencies match, energy transfers.
For example,
matching of frequencies of spectral energy patterns of two different forms of
matter; or
matching of frequencies of a spectral energy pattern of matter with energy in
the form of a
spectral energy catalyst. The entities may both be comprised of matter
(solids, liquids, gases
and/or plasmas and/or mixtures and/or components thereof), both comprised of
various
forms) of energy, or one comprised of various forms) of energy and the other
comprised of
matter (solids, liquids, gases andlor plasmas and/or mixtures and/or
components thereof).
More specifically, all matter can be represented by spectral energy patterns,
which can
be quite simple to very complex in appearance, depending on, for example, the
complexity of
the matter. One example of a spectral energy pattern is a spectral pattern
which likewise can
be quite simple to quite complex in appearance, depending on, for example, the
complexity
of the matter. In the case of matter represented by spectral patterns, matter
can exchange
energy with other matter if, for example, the spectral patterns of the two
forms of matter
match, at least partially, or can be made to match or overlap, at least
partially (e.g., spectral
curves or spectral patterns comprising one or more electromagnetic frequencies
may overlap
with each other). In general, but not in all cases, the greater the overlap in
spectral patterns
(and thus, the greater the overlap of frequencies comprising the spectral
patterns), the greater
the amount of energy transferred. Likewise, for example, if the spectral
pattern of at least one
form of energy can be caused to match or overlap, at least partially, with the
spectral pattern
of matter, energy will also transfer to the matter. Thus, energy can be
transferred to matter by
causing frequencies to match.
As discussed elsewhere herein, energy (~, frequency (v) and wavelength (7~)
and the
speed of light (c) in a vacuum are interrelated through, for example, the
following equation:
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E=hv=hcl~,
When a frequency or set of frequencies corresponding to at least a first form
of matter can be
caused to match with a frequency or set of frequencies corresponding to at
least a second
form of matter, energy can transfer between the different forms of matter and
permit at least
some interaction and/or reaction to occur involving at least one of the two
different forms of
matter. For example, solid, liquid, gas and/or plasma (and/or mixtures and/or
portions
thereof) forms of matter can interact and/or react and form a desirable
reaction product or
result. Any combinations) of the above forms of matter (e.g., solid/solid,
solidJliquid,
solid/gas, solid/plasma, solid/gas/plasma, solid/liquid/gas, etc., and/or
mixtures and/or
portions thereof) are possible to achieve for desirable interactions and/or
reactions to occur.
Further, matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases and/or plasmas and/or mixtures
and/or
portions thereof) can be caused, or influenced, to interact and/or react with
other matter
and/or portions thereof in, for example, a reaction system along a desired
reaction pathway
by applying energy, in the form of, for example, a catalytic spectral energy
pattern, a catalytic
spectral pattern, a spectral energy pattern, a spectral energy catalyst, a
spectral pattern, a
spectral catalyst, a spectral environmental reaction condition and/or
combinations thereof,
which can collectively result in an applied spectral energy pattern.
In these cases, interactions and/or reactions may be caused to occur when the
applied
spectral energy pattern results in, for example, some type of modification to
the spectral
energy pattern of one or more of the forms of matter in the reaction system.
The various
forms of matter include: reactants; transients; intermediates; activated
complexes; physical
catalysts; reaction products; promoters; poisons; solvents; physical catalyst
support materials;
reaction vessels; and/or mixtures of components thereof. For example, the
applied spectral
energy provider (i.e., at least one of spectral energy catalyst; spectral
catalyst; spectral energy
pattern; spectral pattern; catalytic spectral energy pattern; catalytic
spectral pattern; applied
spectral energy pattern and spectral environmental reaction conditions) when
targeted
appropriately to, for example, a participant and/or component in the reaction
system, can
result in the generation of, and/or desirable interaction with, one or more
participants.
Specifically, the applied spectral energy provider can be targeted to achieve
very specific
desirable results and/or reaction product andlor reaction product at a desired
rate. The
targeting can occur by a direct resonance approach, (i.e., direct resonance
targeting), a
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harmonic resonance approach (i.e., harmonic targeting) and/or a non-harmonic
heterodyne
resonance approach (i.e., non-harmonic heterodyne targeting). The spectral
energy provider
can be targeted to, for example, interact with at least one frequency of an
atom or molecule,
including, but not limited to, electronic frequencies, vibrational
frequencies, rotational
frequencies, rotational-vibrational frequencies, fine splitting frequencies,
hyperfine splitting
frequencies, magnetic field induced frequencies, electric field induced
frequencies, natural
oscillating frequencies, and all components and/or portions thereof (discussed
in greater
detail later herein). These approaches may result in, for example, the
mimicking of at least
one mechanism of action of a physical catalyst in a reaction system. For
example, in some
cases, desirable results may be achieved by utilizing a single applied
spectral energy pattern
targeted to a single participant; while in other cases, more than one applied
spectral energy
pattern may be targeted to a single participant or multiple participants, by,
for example,
multiple approaches. Specifically, combinations of direct resonance targeting,
harmonic
targeting and non-harmonic heterodyne targeting, which can be made to interact
with one or
more frequencies occurring in atoms and/or molecules, could be used
sequentially or
substantially continuously. Further, in certain cases, the spectral energy
provider targeting
may result in various interactions at predominantly the upper energy levels of
one or more of
the various forms of matter present in a reaction system.
The invention further recognizes and explains that various environmental
reaction
conditions are capable of influencing reaction pathways in a reaction system
when using a
spectral energy catalyst such as a spectral catalyst. The invention teaches
specific methods
for controlling various environmental reaction conditions in order to achieve
desirable results
in a reaction (e.g., desirable reaction products) in one or more desirable
reaction pathway(s))
and/or interaction. The invention further discloses an applied spectral energy
approach which
permits the simulation, at least partially, of desirable environmental
reaction conditions by
the application of at least one, for example, spectral environmental reaction
conditions. Thus,
environmental reaction conditions can be controlled and used in combination
with at least
one spectral energy pattern to achieve a desired reaction pathway.
Alternatively, traditionally
utilized environmental reaction conditions can be modified in a desirable
manner (e.g.,
application of a reduced temperature and/or reduced pressure) by supplementing
and/or
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replacing the traditional environmental reaction conditions) with at least one
spectral
environmental reaction condition.
The invention also provides a method for determining desirable physical
catalysts
(i.e., comprising previously known materials or materials not previously known
to function as
a physical catalyst) which can be utilized in a reaction system to achieve a
desired reaction
pathway and/or desired reaction rate. In this regard, the invention may be
able to provide a
recipe for a physical and/or spectral catalyst for a particular reaction
system where no
physical catalyst previously existed. In this embodiment of the invention,
spectral energy
patterns are determined or calculated by the techniques of the invention and
corresponding
physical catalysts can be supplied or manufactured and thereafter included in
the reaction
system to generate the calculated required spectral energy patterns. In
certain cases, one or
more existing physical species could be used or combined in a suitable manner,
if a single
physical species was deemed to be insufficient, to obtain the appropriate
calculated spectral
energy pattern to achieve a desired reaction pathway andlor desired reaction
rate. Such
catalysts can be used alone, in combination with other physical catalysts,
spectral energy
catalysts, controlled environmental reaction conditions and/or spectral
environmental reaction
conditions to achieve a desired resultant energy pattern and consequent
reaction pathway
and/or desired reaction rate.
The invention discloses many different permutations of the basic theme stated
throughout namely, that when frequencies match, energy transfers. It should be
understood
that these many different permutations can be used alone to achieve desirable
results (e.g.,
desired reaction pathways and/or a desired reaction rates) or can be used in a
limitless
combination of permutations, to achieve desired results (e.g., desired
reaction pathways
and/or desired reaction rates). However, common to all of these seemingly
complicated
permutations and combinations is the basic understanding first provided by
this invention that
in order to control or enable any reaction, so long as frequencies of two
entities match (e.g.,
spectral patterns overlap), energy can be transferred. If energy is
transferred, desirable
interactions andJor reactions can result.
Moreover, this concept can also be used in the reverse. Specifically, if a
reaction is
occurring because frequencies match, the reaction can be slowed or stopped by
causing the
frequencies to no longer match or at least match to a lesser degree. In this
regard, one or
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more reaction system components (e.g., environmental reaction condition,
spectral
environmental reaction condition and/or ari applied spectral energy pattern)
can be modified
andlor applied so as to minimize, reduce or eliminate frequencies from
matching. This also
permits reactions to be started and stopped with ease providing for novel
control in a myriad
of reactions.
To simplify the disclosure and understanding of the invention, specific
categories or
sections have been created in the "Summary of the Invention" and in the
"Detailed
Description of the Preferred Embodiments". However, it should be understood
that these
categories are not mutually exclusive and that some overlap exists.
Accordingly, these
artificially created sections should not be used in an effort to limit the
scope of the invention
defined in the appended claims.
I. WAVE ENERGIES
In general, thermal energy has traditionally been used to drive chemical
reactions by
applying heat and increasing the temperature of a reaction system. The
addition of heat
increases the kinetic (motion) energy of the chemical reactants. It has been
believed that a
reactant with more kinetic energy moves faster and farther, and is more likely
to take part in a
chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise, by stirring and moving the
chemicals,
increases their kinetic energy and thus their reactivity. The addition of
mechanical energy
often increases temperature, by increasing kinetic energy.
Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanical waves.
Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increase the kinetic
energy of chemical
reactants, and can also elevate their temperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM)
energy consists of
waves of electric and magnetic fields. EM energy may also increase the kinetic
energy and
heat in reaction systems. It also may energize electronic orbitals or
vibrational motion in
some reactions.
Both acoustic and electromagnetic energy consist of waves. Energy waves and
frequency have some interesting properties, and may be combined in some
interesting ways.
The manner in which wave energy transfers and combines, depends largely on the
frequency.
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For example, when two waves of energy, each having the same amplitude, but one
at a
frequency of 400 Hz and the other at 100 Hz are caused to interact, the waves
will combine
and their frequencies will add, to produce a new frequency of S00 Hz (i.e.,
the "sum"
frequency). The frequency of the waves will also subtract when they combine to
produce a
frequency of 300 Hz (i.e., the "difference" frequency). All wave energies
typically add and
subtract in this manner, and such adding and subtracting is referred to as
heterodyning.
Common results of heterodyning are familiar to most as harmonics in music. The
importance
of heterodyning will be discussed in greater detail later herein.
Another concept important to the invention is wave interactions or
interference. In
particular, wave energies are known to interact constructively and
destructively. This
phenomena is important in determining the applied spectral energy pattern.
Figures la-lc
show two different incident sine waves 1 (Figure 1 a) and 2 (Figure 1 b) which
correspond to
two different spectral energy patterns having two different wavelengths 7~~
and ~,z (and thus
different frequencies) which could be applied to a reaction system. Assume
arguendo that the
1 S energy pattern of Figure 1 a corresponds to an electromagnetic spectral
pattern and that Figure
1 b corresponds to one spectral environmental reaction condition. Each of the
sine waves 1
and 2 has a different differential equation which describes its individual
motion. However,
when the sine waves are combined into the resultant additive wave 1 + 2
(Figure 1 c), the
resulting complex differential equation, which describes the totality of the
combined energies
(i.e., the applied spectral energy pattern) actually results in certain of the
input energies being
high (i.e., constructive interference shown by a higher amplitude) at certain
points in time, as
well as being low (i.e., destructive interference shown by a lower amplitude)
at certain points
in time.
Specifically, the portions "X" represent areas where the electromagnetic
spectral
pattern of wave 1 has constructively interfered with the spectral
environmental reaction
condition wave 2, whereas the portions "Y" represent areas where the two waves
1 and 2
have destructively interfered. Depending upon whether the portions "X"
corresponds to
desirable or undesirable wavelengths, frequencies or energies (e.g., causing
the applied
spectral energy pattern to have positive or negative interactions with, for
example, one or
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more participants and/or components in the reaction system), then the portions
"X" could
enhance a positive effect in the reaction system or could enhance a negative
effect in the
reaction system. Similarly, depending on whether the portions "Y" correspond
to desirable
or undesirable wavelengths, frequencies, or energies, then the portions "Y"
may correspond
to the effective loss of either a positive or negative effect.
It should be clear from this particular analysis that constructive
interferences (i.e., the
points "X") could, for example, maximize both positive and negative effects in
a reaction
system. Accordingly, this simplified example shows that by combining, for
example, certain
frequencies from a spectral pattern with one or more other frequencies from,
for example, at
least one spectral environmental reaction condition, that the applied spectral
energy pattern
that is actually applied to the reaction system can be a combination of
constructive and
destructive interference(s). Accordingly, these factors should also be taken
into account
when choosing appropriate spectral energy patterns that are to be applied to a
reaction
system. In this regard, it is noted that in practice many desirable incident
wavelengths can be
applied to a reaction system. Moreover, it should also be clear that wave
interaction effects
include, but are not limited to, heterodyning, direct resonance, indirect
resonance, additive
waves, subtractive waves, constructive or destructive interference, etc.
Further, as discussed
in detail later herein, additional effects such as electric effects andlor
magnetic field effects
can also influence spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns).
II. SPECTRAL CATALYSTS AND SPECTROSCOPY
A wide variety of reactions can be advantageously affected and directed with
the
assistance of a spectral energy catalyst having a specific spectral energy
pattern (e.g., spectral
pattern or electromagnetic pattern) which transfers a predetermined quanta of
targeted energy
to initiate, control andlor promote desirable reaction pathways and/or
desirable reaction rates
within a reaction system. This section discusses spectral catalysts in more
detail and explains
various techniques for using spectral catalysts in reaction systems. For
example, a spectral
catalyst can be used in a reaction system to replace and provide the
additional energy
normally supplied by a physical catalyst. The spectral catalyst can actually
mimic or copy
the mechanisms of action of a physical catalyst. The spectral catalyst can act
as both a
positive catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction or as a negative catalyst
or poison to
decrease the rate of reaction. Furthermore, the spectral catalyst can augment
a physical
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catalyst by utilizing both a physical catalyst and a spectral catalyst in a
reaction system. The
spectral catalyst can improve the activity of a physical chemical catalyst.
Also, the spectral
catalyst can partially replace a specific quantity or amount of the physical
catalyst, thereby
reducing the high cost of physical catalysts in many industrial reactions.
In the present invention, the spectral energy catalyst provides targeted
energy (e.g.,
electromagnetic radiation comprising a specific frequency or combination of
frequencies), in
a sufficient amount for a sufficient duration to initiate and/or promote
and/or direct a
chemical reaction (e.g., follow a particular reaction pathway). The total
combination of
targeted energy applied at any point in time to the reaction system is
referred to as the applied
spectral energy pattern. The applied spectral energy pattern may be comprised
of a single
spectral catalyst, multiple spectral catalysts and/or other spectral energy
catalysts as well.
With the absorption of targeted energy into a reaction system (e.g.,
electromagnetic energy
from a spectral catalyst), a reactant may be caused to proceed through one or
several reaction
pathways including: energy transfer which can, for example, excite electrons
to higher energy
states for initiation of chemical reaction, by causing frequencies to match;
ionize or dissociate
reactants which may participate in a chemical reaction; stabilize reaction
products; energize
and/or stabilize intermediates and/or transients and/or activated complexes
that participate in
a reaction pathway; and/or cause one or more components in a reaction system
to have
spectral patterns which at least partially overlap.
For example, in a simple reaction system, if a chemical reaction provides for
at least
one reactant "A" to be converted into at least one reaction product "B", a
physical catalyst
"C" may be utilized. In contrast, a portion of the catalytic spectral energy
pattern (e.g., in this
section the catalytic spectral pattern) of the physical catalyst "C" may be
applied in the form
of, for example, an electromagnetic beam to catalyze the reaction.
C
A -~B
Substances A and B = unknown frequencies, and C = 30 Hz;
Therefore, Substance A + 30 HZ --> Substance B
In the present invention, for example, the spectral pattern (e.g.,
electromagnetic
spectral pattern) of the physical catalyst "C" can be determined by known
methods of
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spectroscopy. Utilizing spectroscopic instrumentation, the spectral pattern of
the physical
catalyst is preferably determined under conditions approximating those
occurring in the
reaction system using the physical catalyst (e.g., spectral energy patterns as
well as spectral
patterns can be influenced by environmental reaction conditions, as discussed
later herein).
Spectroscopy is a process in which the energy differences between allowed
states of any
system are measured by determining the frequencies of the corresponding
electromagnetic
energy which is either being absorbed or emitted. Spectroscopy in general
deals with the
interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. When photons interact
with, for
example, atoms or molecules, changes in the properties of atoms and molecules
are observed.
Atoms and molecules are associated with several different types of motion. The
entire molecule rotates, the bonds vibrate, and even the electrons move,
albeit so rapidly that
electron density distributions have historically been the primary focus of the
prior art. Each
of these kinds of motion is quantified. That is, the atom, molecule or ion can
exist only in
distinct states that correspond to discrete energy amounts. The energy
difference between the
different quantum states depends on the type of motion involved. Thus, the
frequency of
energy required to bring about a transition is different for the different
types of motion. That
is, each type of motion corresponds to the absorption of energy in different
regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum and different spectroscopic instrumentation may be
required for
each spectral region. The total motion energy of an atom or molecule may be
considered to
be at least the sum of its electronic, vibrational and rotational energies.
In both emission and absorption spectra, the relation between the energy
change in the
atom or molecule and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy emitted or
absorbed is
given by the so-called Bohr frequency condition:
dE = by
where h is Planck's constant; v is the frequency; and dE, is the difference of
energies in the
final and initial states.
Electronic spectra are the result of electrons moving from one electronic
energy level
to another in an atom, molecule or ion. A molecular physical catalyst's
spectral pattern
includes not only electronic energy transitions but also may involve
transitions between
rotational and vibrational energy levels. As a result, the spectra of
molecules are much more
complicated than those of atoms. The main changes observed in the atoms or
molecules after
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interaction with photons include excitation, ionization and/or rupture of
chemical bonds, all
of which may be measured and quantified by spectroscopic methods including
emission or
absorption spectroscopy which give the same information about energy level
separation.
In emission spectroscopy, when an atom or molecule is subjected to a flame or
an
S electric discharge, such atoms or molecules may absorb energy and become
"excited." On
their return to their "normal" state they may emit radiation. Such an emission
is the result of
a transition of the atom or molecule from a high energy or "excited" state to
one of lower
state. The energy lost in the transition is emitted in the form of
electromagnetic energy.
"Excited" atoms usually produce line spectra while "excited" molecules tend to
produce band
spectra.
In absorption spectroscopy, the absorption of nearly monochromatic incident
radiation
is monitored as it is swept over a range of frequencies. During the absorption
process the
atoms or molecules pass from a state of low energy to one of high energy.
Energy changes
produced by electromagnetic energy absorption occur only in integral multiples
of a unit
amount of energy called a quantum, which is characteristic of each absorbing
species.
Absorption spectra may be classified into four types: rotational; rotation-
vibration;
vibrational; and electronic.
The rotational spectrum of a molecule is associated with changes which occur
in the
rotational states of the molecule. The energies of the rotational states
differ only by a
relatively small amount, and hence, the frequency which is necessary to effect
a change in the
rotational levels is very low and the wavelength of electromagnetic energy is
very large. The
energy spacing of molecular rotational states depends on bond distances and
angles. Pure
rotational spectra are observed in the far infrared and microwave and radio
regions (See
Table 1 ).
Rotation-vibrational spectra are associated with transitions in which the
vibrational
states of the molecule are altered and may be accompanied by changes in
rotational states.
Absorption occurs at higher frequencies or shorter wavelength and usually
occurs in the
middle of the infrared region (See Table 1).
Vibrational spectra from different vibrational energy levels occur because of
motion
of bonds. A stretching vibration involves a change in the interatomic distance
along the axis
of the bond between two atoms. Bending vibrations are characterized by a-
change in the
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angle between two bonds. The vibrational spectra of a molecule are typically
in the near-
infrared range.
Electronic spectra are from transitions between electronic states for atoms
and
molecules and are accompanied by simultaneous changes in the rotational and
vibrational
states in molecules. Relatively large energy differences are involved, and
hence absorption
occurs at rather large frequencies or relatively short wavelengths. Different
electronic states
of atoms or molecules correspond to energies in the infrared, ultraviolet-
visible or x-ray
region of the electromagnetic spectrum (See Table 1).
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TABLE 1
Approximate Boundaries
Region Name Energy, J Wavelength Frequency, Hz
X-ray 2x10''4-2x10'1 10-2-lOnm 3x10'9 -3x10'6
Vacuum 2x10''7-9.9x10-'9 10-200nm 3x10'6-1. 5x10's
Ultraviolet
Near ultraviolet
9.9 x 10 ''9 - 200 - 400 1. S x 10'S - 7.
5 x 10 ''9 nm 5 x 10'4
Visible 5 x 10 ''9 - 2.5 400 - 800 7. 5 x 10'4 - 3.
x 10 ''9 nm 8 x 10'4
Near Infrared
2.5x10''9-6.6x.10'20.8-2.5 um 3. 8x10'4-1x10'4
Fundamental 6.6 x 10 '2 - 4 2.5 - 50 um 1 x 10'4 - 6 x 10'2
Infrared x 10 '2'
Far infrared 4 x 10 '2' - 6.6 50 - 300 um 6 x 10'2 - 1 x 10'2
x 10 '22
Microwave 6.6 x 10 '22 - 0.3 mm - 0.5 1 x 10'2 - 6 x 10
4 x 10 '25 m 8
Radiowave 4 x 10 '25 - 6.6 0.5 - 300 6 x 10 g - 1
x 10 '34 x 10 6m
Electromagnetic radiation as a form of energy can be absorbed or emitted, and
therefore many different types of spectroscopy may be used in the present
invention to
determine a desired spectral pattern of a spectral catalyst (e.g., a spectral
pattern of a physical
catalyst) including, but not limited to, x-ray, ultraviolet, infrared,
microwave, atomic
absorption, flame emissions, atomic emissions, inductively coupled plasma, DC
argon
plasma, arc-source emission, spark-source emission, high-resolution laser,
radio, Raman and
the like.
In order to study the electronic transitions, the material to be studied may
need to be
heated to a high temperature, such as in a flame, where the molecules are
atomized and
excited. Another very effective way of atomizing gases is the use of gaseous
discharges.
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When a gas is placed between charged electrodes, causing an electrical field,
electrons are
liberated from the electrodes and from the gas atoms themselves and may form a
plasma or
plasma-like conditions. These electrons will collide with the gas atoms which
will be
atomized, excited or ionized. By using high frequency fields, it is possible
to induce gaseous
discharges without using electrodes. By varying the field strength, the
excitation energy can
be varied. In the case of a solid material, excitation by electrical spark or
arc can be used. In
the spark or arc, the material to be analyzed is evaporated and the atoms are
excited.
The basic scheme of an emission spectrophotometer includes a purified silica
cell
containing the sample which is to be excited. The radiation of the sample
passes through a
slit and is separated into a spectrum by means of a dispersion element. The
spectral pattern
can be detected on a screen, photographic film or by a detector.
An atom will most strongly absorb electromagnetic energy at the same
frequencies it
emits. Measurements of absorption are often made so that electromagnetic
radiation that is
emitted from a source passes through a wavelength-limiting device, and
impinges upon the
physical catalyst sample that is held in a cell. When a beam of white light
passes through a
material, selected frequencies from the beam are absorbed. The electromagnetic
radiation
that is not absorbed by the physical catalyst passes through the cell and
strikes a detector.
When the remaining beam is spread out in a spectrum, the frequencies that were
absorbed
show up as dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The position of
these dark lines
correspond exactly to the positions of lines in an emission spectrum of the
same molecule or
atom. Both emission and absorption spectrophotometers are available through
regular
commercial channels.
In 1885, Balmer discovered that hydrogen vibrates and produces energy at
frequencies in the visible light region of the electromagnetic spectrum which
can be
expressed by a simple formula:
1/~, = R (1/22 -1/m2)
when ~, is the wavelength of the light, R is Rydberg's constant and m is an
integer greater
than or equal to 3 (e.g., 3, 4, or 5, etc.). Subsequently, Rydberg discovered
that this equation
could be adapted to result in all the wavelengths in the hydrogen spectrum by
changing the
1 /22 to 1 /n2, as in,
1/~, = R (1/n2 -1/m2)
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where n is an integer > 1, and m is an integer > n+1. Thus, for every
different number n, the
result is a series of numbers for wavelength, and the names of various
scientists were
assigned to each such series which resulted. For instance, when n=2 and m > 3,
the energy is
in the visible light spectrum and the series is referred to as the Balmer
series. The Lyman
series is in the ultraviolet spectrum with n = 1, and the Paschen series is in
the infrared
spectrum with n = 3.
In the prior art, energy level diagrams were the primary means used to
describe
energy levels in the hydrogen atom (see Figures 7a and 7b).
After determining the electromagnetic spectral pattern of a desired catalyst
(e.g., a
physical catalyst), the catalytic spectral pattern may be duplicated , at
least partially, and
applied to the reaction system. Any generator of one or more frequencies
within an
acceptable approximate range of, for example, frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation may
be used in the present invention. When duplicating one or more frequencies of,
for example,
a spectral pattern, it is not necessary to duplicate the frequency exactly.
For instance, the
effect achieved by a frequency of 1,000 THz, can also be achieved by a
frequency very close
to it, such as 1,001 or 999 THz. Thus, there will be a range above and below
each exact
frequency which will also catalyze a reaction. Specifically, Figure 12 shows a
typical bell-
curve "B" distribution of frequencies around the desired frequency fo, wherein
desirable
frequencies can be applied which do not correspond exactly to fo, but are
close enough to the
frequency fo to achieve a desired effect, such as those frequencies between
and including the
frequencies within the range of fl and f2. Note that fl and f2 correspond to
about one half the
maximum amplitude, amp, of the curve "B". Thus, whenever the term "exact" or
specific
reference to "frequency" or the like is used, it should be understood to have
this meaning. In
addition, harmonics of spectral catalyst frequencies, both above and below the
exact spectral
catalyst frequency, will cause sympathetic resonance with the exact frequency
and will
catalyze the reaction. Finally, it is possible to catalyze reactions by
duplicating one or more
of the mechanisms of action of the exact frequency, rather than using the
exact frequency
itself. For example, platinum catalyzes the formation of water from hydrogen
and oxygen, in
part, by energizing the hydroxyl radical at its frequency of roughly 1,060
THz. The reaction
can also be catalyzed by energizing the hydroxy radical with its microwave
frequency,
thereby duplicating platinum's mechanism of action.
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An electromagnetic radiation emitting source should have the following
characteristics: high intensity of the desired wavelengths; long life;
stability; and the ability to
emit the electromagnetic energy in a pulsed andlor continuous mode.
Irradiating sources can include, but are not limited to, arc lamps, such as
xenon-arc,
hydrogen and deuterium, krypton-arc, high-pressure mercury, platinum, silver;
plasma arcs,
discharge lamps, such as As, Bi, Cd, Cs, Ge, Hg, K, P, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sn, Ti,
Tl and Zn;
hollow-cathode lamps, either single or multiple elements such as Cu, Pt, and
Ag; and sunlight
and coherent electromagnetic energy emissions, such as masers and lasers.
Masers are devices which amplify or generate electromagnetic energy waves with
great stability and accuracy. Masers operate on the same principal as lasers,
but produce
electro-magnetic energy in the radio and microwave, rather than visible range
of the
spectrum. In masers, the electromagnetic energy is produced by the transition
of molecules
between rotational energy levels.
Lasers are powerful coherent photon sources that produce a beam of photons
having
the same frequency, phase and direction, that is, a beam of photons that
travel exactly alike.
Accordingly, for example, the predetermined spectral pattern of a desired
catalyst can be
generated by a series or grouping of lasers producing one or more required
frequencies.
Any laser capable of emitting the necessary electromagnetic radiation with a
frequency or frequencies of the spectral catalyst may be used in the present
invention. Lasers
are available for use throughout much of the spectral range. They can be
operated in either a
continuous or a pulsed mode. Lasers that emit lines and lasers that emit a
continuum may be
used in the present invention. Line sources may include argon ion laser, ruby
laser, the
nitrogen laser, the Nd:YAG laser, the carbon dioxide laser, the carbon
monoxide laser and the
nitrous oxide-carbon dioxide laser. In addition to the spectral lines that are
emitted by lasers,
several other lines are available, by addition or subtraction in a crystal of
the frequency
emitted by one laser to or from that emitted by another laser. Devices that
combine
frequencies and may be used in the present invention include difference
frequency generators
and sum frequency mixers. Other lasers that may be used in this invention
include, but are
not limited to: crystal, such as A1203 doped with Cr3+, Y3A15012 doped with
Nd3+; gas, such
as He-Ne, Kr-ion; glass, chemical, such as vibrationally excited HCL and HF;
dye, such as
Rhodamine 6G in methanol; and semiconductor lasers, such as Gal_XAIXAs. Many
models
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can be tuned to various frequency ranges, thereby providing several different
frequencies
from one instrument and applying them to the reaction system (See Examples in
Table 2).
10
20
30
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TABLE 2
SEVERAL POPULAR LASERS
Medium Type Emitted wavelength, nm
Ar Gas 334,351.1, 363.8, 454.5, 457.9,
465.8, 472.7,
4?6.5, 488.0, 496.5, 501.7, 514.5,
528.7
Kr Gas 350.7, 356.4, 406.7, 413.1, 415.4,
468.0,
476.2, 482.5, 520.8, 530.9, 568.2,
647.1,
676.4, 752.5, 799.3
He-Ne Gas 632.8
He-Cd Gas 325.0, 441.6
N2 Gas 337.1
XeF Gas 351
KrF Gas 248
ArF Gas 193
Ruby Solid 693.4
Nd:YAG Solid 266, 355, 532
Pbl_X Cd x Solid 2.9 x 103 - 2.6 x 104
S
Pbl_X Se X Solid 2.9 x 103 - 2.6 x 104
Pb i_X Sn X Solid 2.9 x 103 - 2.6 x 104
Se
Pb 1 _X Sn Solid ' 2.9 x 103 - 2.6 x 104
X Te
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The coherent light from a single laser or a series of lasers is simply brought
to focus
or introduced to the region where a desired reaction is to take place. The
light source should
be close enough to avoid a "dead space" in which the light does not reach the
reaction system,
but far.enough apart to assure complete incident-light absorption. Since
ultraviolet sources
generate heat, such sources may need to be cooled to maintain efficient
operation. Irradiation
time, causing excitation of the reaction system, may be individually tailored
for each
reaction: some short-term for a continuous reaction with large surface
exposure to the light
source; or long light-contact time for other systems.
An object of this invention is to provide a spectral energy pattern (e.g., a
spectral
pattern of electromagnetic energy) to the reaction system by applying at least
a portion of (or
substantially all of) a required spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral
catalyst) determined
and calculated by, for example, waveform analysis of the spectral patterns of,
for example,
the reactants) and the reaction product(s). Accordingly, in the case of a
spectral catalyst, a
calculated electromagnetic pattern will be a spectral pattern or will act as a
spectral catalyst to
generate a preferred reaction pathway and/or preferred reaction rate. In basic
terms,
spectroscopic data for identified substances can be used to perform a simple
waveform
calculation to arrive at, for example, the correct electromagnetic energy
frequency, or
combination of frequencies, needed to catalyze a reaction. In simple terms,
A -~ B
Substance A = 50 Hz, and Substance B = 80 Hz
80 Hz - 50 Hz = 30 Hz:
Therefore, Substance A + 30 Hz --~ Substance B.
The spectral energy pattern (e.g., spectral patterns) of both the reactants)
and reaction
products) can be determined. In the case of a spectral catalyst, this can be
accomplished by
the spectroscopic means mentioned earlier. Once the spectral patterns are
determined (e.g.,
having a specific frequency or combination of frequencies) within an
appropriate set of
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environmental reaction conditions, the spectral energy patterns) (e.g.,
electromagnetic
spectral pattern(s)) of the spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst)
can be determined.
Using the spectral energy pattern (s) (e.g., spectral patterns) of the
reactants) and reaction
product(s), a waveform analysis calculation can determine the energy
difference between the
reactants) and reaction products) and at least a portion of the calculated
spectral energy
pattern (e.g., electromagnetic spectral pattern) in the form of a spectral
energy pattern (e.g., a
spectral pattern) of a spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst)
can be applied to the
reaction system to cause the reaction system to follow along the desired
reaction pathway.
The specific frequency or frequencies of the calculated spectral energy
pattern (e.g., spectral
pattern) cort~esponding to the spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral
catalyst) will provide the
necessary energy input into the reaction system to affect and initiate a
desired reaction
pathway.
Performing the waveform analysis calculation to arnve at, for example, the
correct
electromagnetic energy frequency or frequencies can be accomplished by using
complex
algebra, Fourier transformation or Wavelet Transforms, which is available
through
commercial channels under the trademark Mathematica~ and supplied by Wolfram,
Co. It
should be noted that only a portion of a calculated spectral energy catalyst
(e.g., spectral
catalyst) may be sufficient to catalyze a reaction or a substantially complete
spectral energy
catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) may be applied depending on the particular
circumstances.
In addition, at least a portion of the spectral energy pattern (e.g.,
electromagnetic
pattern of the required spectral catalyst) may be generated and applied to the
reaction system
by, for example, the electromagnetic radiation emitting sources defined and
explained earlier.
The use of a spectral catalyst may be applicable in many different areas of
technology
ranging from biochemical processes to industrial reactions.
The specific physical catalysts that may be replaced or augmented in the
present
invention may include any solid, liquid, gas or plasma catalyst, having either
homogeneous or
heterogeneous catalytic activity. A homogeneous physical catalyst is defined
as a catalyst
whose molecules are dispersed in the same phase as the reacting chemicals. A
heterogeneous
physical catalyst is defined as one whose molecules are not in the same phase
as the reacting
chemicals. In addition, enzymes which are considered biological catalysts are
to be included
in the present invention. Some examples of physical catalysts that may be
replaced or
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augmented comprise both elemental and molecular catalysts, including, not
limited to,
metals, such as silver, platinum, nickel, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium and
iron;
semiconducting metal oxides and sulfides, such as NiOz, Zn), MgO, Bi203/Mo03,
Ti02,
SrTi03, CdS, CdSe, SiC, GaP, Wo2 and Mg03; copper sulfate; insulating oxides
such as
A1203, Si02 and MgO; and Ziegler-Natta catalysts, such as titanium
tetrachloride, and
trialkyaluminum.
III. TARGETING
The frequency and wave nature of energy has been discussed herein.
Additionally,
Section I entitled "Wave Energies" disclosed the concepts of various potential
interactions
between different waves. The general concepts of "targeting", "direct
resonance targeting",
"harmonic targeting" and "non-harmonic heterodyne targeting" (all defined
terms herein)
build on these and other understandings.
Targeting has been defined generally as the application of a spectral energy
provider
(e.g., spectral energy catalyst, spectral catalyst, spectral energy pattern,
spectral pattern,
catalytic spectral energy pattern, catalytic spectral pattern, spectral
environmental reaction
conditions and applied spectral energy pattern) to a reaction system. The
application of these
types of energies to a reaction system can result in interactions) between the
applied spectral
energy providers) and matter (including all components thereof) in the
reaction system. This
targeting can result in at least one of direct resonance, harmonic resonance,
and/or non-
harmonic heterodyne resonance with at least a portion, for example, at least
one form of
. matter in a reaction system. In this invention, targeting should be
generally understood as
meaning applying a particular spectral energy provider (e.g., a spectral
energy pattern) to
another entity comprising matter (or any component thereof) to achieve a
particular desired
result (e.g., desired reaction product and/or desired reaction product at a
desired reaction
rate). Further, the invention provides techniques for achieving such desirable
results without
the production of, for example, undesirable transients, intermediates,
activated complexes
and/or reaction products. In this regard, some limited prior art techniques
exist which have
applied certain forms of energies (as previously discussed) to reaction
systems. These certain
forms of energies have been limited to direct resonance and harmonic resonance
with some
electronic frequencies and/or vibrational frequencies of some reactants. These
limited forms
of energies used by the prior art were due to the fact that the prior art
lacked an adequate
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understanding of the spectral energy mechanisms and techniques disclosed
herein.
Moreover, it has often been the case in the prior art that at least some
undesirable
intermediate, transient, activated complex and/or reaction product was formed,
and/or a less
than optimum reaction rate for a desired reaction pathway occurred. The
present invention
overcomes the limitations of the prior art by specifically targeting, for
example, various
forms of matter in a reaction system (and/or components thereof), with, for
example, an
applied spectral energy pattern. Heretofore, such selective targeting of the
invention was
never disclosed or suggested. Specifically, at best, the prior art has been
reduced to using
random, trial and error or feedback-type analyses which, although may result
in the
identification of a single spectral catalyst frequency, such approach may be
very costly and
very time-consuming, not to mention potentially unreproducible under a
slightly different set
of reaction conditions. Such trial and error techniques for determining
appropriate catalysts
also have the added drawback, that having once identified a particular
catalyst that works,
one is left with no idea of what it means. If one wishes to modify the
reaction, including
simple reactions using size and shape, another trial and error analysis
becomes necessary
rather than a simple, quick calculation offered by the techniques of the
present invention.
Accordingly, whenever use of the word "targeting" is made herein, it should be
understood that targeting does not correspond to undisciplined energy bands
being applied to
a reaction system; but rather to well defined, targeted, applied spectral
energy patterns, each
of which has a particular desirable purpose in, for example, a reaction
pathway to achieve a
desired result and/or a desired result at a desired reaction rate.
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL REACTION CONDITIONS
Environmental reaction conditions are important to understand because they can
influence, positively or negatively, reaction pathways in a reaction system.
Traditional
environmental reaction conditions include temperature, pressure, surface area
of catalysts,
catalyst size and shape, solvents, support materials, poisons, promoters,
concentrations,
electromagnetic radiation, electric fields, magnetic fields, mechanical
forces, acoustic fields,
reaction vessel size, shape and composition and combinations thereof, etc.
The following reaction can be used to discuss the effects of environmental
reaction
conditions which may need to be taken into account in order to cause the
reaction to proceed
along the simple reaction pathway shown below.
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C
A->B
Specifically, in some instances, reactant A will not form into reaction
product B in the
presence of any catalyst C unless the environmental reaction conditions in the
reaction
system include certain maximum or minimum conditions of environmental reaction
conditions such as pressure and/or temperature. In this regard, many reactions
will not occur
in the presence of a physical catalyst unless the environmental reactions
conditions include,
for example, an elevated temperature and/or an elevated pressure. In the
present invention,
such environmental reaction conditions should be taken into consideration when
applying a
particular spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst). Many
specifics of the various
environmental reaction conditions are discussed in greater detail in the
Section herein entitled
"Description of the Preferred Embodiments".
V. SPECTRAL ENVIRONMENTAL REACTION CONDITIONS
If it is known that certain reaction pathways will not occur within a reaction
system
1 S (or not occur at a desirable rate) even when a catalyst is present unless,
for example, certain
minimum or maximum environmental reaction conditions are present (e.g., the
temperature
and/or pressure isfare elevated), then an additional frequency or combination
of frequencies
(i.e., an applied spectral energy pattern) can be applied to the reaction
system. In this regard,
spectral environmental reaction condition(s), can be applied instead of, or to
supplement,
those environmental reaction conditions that are naturally present, or need to
be present, in
order for a desired reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate to be
followed. The
environmental reaction conditions that can be supplemented or replaced with
spectral
environmental reaction conditions include, for example, temperature, pressure,
surface area
of catalysts, catalyst size and shape, solvents, support materials, poisons,
promoters,
concentrations, electric fields, magnetic fields, etc.
Still further, a particular frequency or combination of frequencies and/or
fields that
can produce one or more spectral environmental reaction conditions can be
combined with
one or more spectral energy catalysts and/or spectral catalysts to generate an
applied spectral
energy pattern. Accordingly, various considerations can be taken into account
for what
particular frequency or combination of frequencies and/or fields may be
desirable to
combine with (or replace) various environmental reaction conditions, for
example.
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As an example, in a simple reaction, assume that a first reactant "A" has a
frequency
or simple spectral pattern of 3 THz and a second reactant "B" has a frequency
or simple
spectral pattern of 7 THz. At room temperature, no reaction occurs. However,
when
reactants A and B are exposed to high temperatures, their frequencies, or
simple spectral
patterns, both shift to 5 THz. Since their frequencies match, they transfer
energy and a
reaction occurs. By applying a frequency of 2 THz, at room temperature, the
applied 2 THz
frequency will heterodyne with the 3 THz pattern to result in, both 1 Thz and
5 THz
heterodyned frequencies; while the applied frequency of 2 THz will heterodyne
with the
spectral pattern of 7 THz of reactant "B" and result in heterodyned
frequencies of 5 THz and
9 THz in reactant "B". Thus, the heterodyned frequencies of 5 THz are
generated at room
temperature in each of the reactants "A" and "B". Accordingly, frequencies in
each of the
reactants match and thus energy can transfer between the reactants "A" and
"B". When the
energy can transfer between such reactants, all desirable reactions along a
reaction pathway
may be capable of being achieved. However, in certain reactions, only some
desirable
reactions along a reaction pathway are capable of being achieved by the
application of a
singular frequency. In these instances, additional frequencies and/or fields
may need to be
applied to result in all desirable steps along a reaction pathway being met,
including but not
limited to, the formation of all required reaction intermediates and/or
transients.
Thus, by applying a frequency, or combination of frequencies and/or fields
(i.e.,
creating an applied spectral energy pattern) which corresponds to at least one
spectral
environmental reaction condition, the spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral
patterns of, for
example, reactant(s), intermediates, transients, catalysts, etc.) can be
effectively modified
which may result in broader spectral energy patterns (e.g., broader spectral
patterns), in some
cases, or narrower spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns) in other
cases. Such
broader or narrower spectral energy patterns (e.g., spectral patterns) may
correspond to a
broadening or narrowing of line widths in a spectral energy pattern (e.g., a
spectral pattern).
As stated throughout herein, when frequencies match, energy transfers. In this
particular
embodiment, frequencies can be caused to match by, for example, broadening the
spectral
pattern of one or more participants in a reaction system. For example, as
discussed in much
greater detail later herein, the application of temperature to a reaction
system typically causes
the broadening of one or more spectral patterns (e.g., line width broadening)
of, for example,
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one or more reactants in the reaction system. It is this broadening of
spectral patterns that can
cause spectral patterns of one or more reactants to, for example, overlap. The
overlapping of
the spectral patterns can cause frequencies to match, and thus energy to
transfer. When
energy is transferred, reactions can occur. The scope of reactions which
occur, include all of
those reactions along any particular reaction pathway. Thus, the broadening of
spectral
patterns) can result in, for example, formation of reaction product, formation
of and/or
stimulation and/or stabilization of reaction intermediates and/or transients,
catalyst
frequencies, poisons, promoters, etc. All of the environmental reaction
conditions that are
discussed in detail in the section entitled "Detailed Description of the
Preferred
Embodiments" can be at least partially stimulated in a reaction system by the
application of a
spectral environmental reaction condition.
Similarly, spectral patterns can be caused to become non-overlapping by
changing,
for example, at least one spectral environmental reaction condition, and thus
changing the
applied spectral energy pattern. In this instance, energy will not transfer
(or the rate at which
energy transfers can be reduced) and reactions will not occur (or the rates of
reactions can be
slowed).
Spectral environmental reaction conditions can be utilized to start and/or
stop
reactions in a reaction pathway. Thus, certain reactions can be started,
stopped, slowed
and/or speeded up by, for example, applying different spectral environmental
reaction
conditions at different times during a reaction and/or at different
intensities. Thus, spectral
environmental reaction conditions are capable of influencing, positively or
negatively,
reaction pathways and/or reaction rates in a reaction system.
VI. DESIGNING PHYSICAL AND SPECTRAL CATALYSTS
Moreover, by utilizing the above techniques to design (e.g., calculate or
determine) a
desirable spectral energy pattern, such as a desirable spectral pattern for a
spectral energy
catalyst (e.g., spectral catalyst) rather than applying the spectral energy
catalyst (e.g., spectral
catalyst) per se, for example, the designed spectral pattern can be used to
design and/or
determine an optimum physical andlor spectral catalyst that could be used in
the reaction
system. Further, the invention may be able to provide a recipe for a physical
and/or spectral
catalyst for a particular reaction system where no catalyst previously
existed. For example in
a reaction where:
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A~I-~B
where A = reactant, B = product and I = known intermediate, and there is no
known catalyst,
either a physical or spectral catalyst that could be designed which, for
example, resonates
with the intermediate "I", thereby catalyzing the reaction.
As a first step, the designed spectral pattern could be compared to known
spectral
patterns for existing materials to determine if similarities exist between the
designed spectral
pattern and spectral patterns of known materials. If the designed spectral
pattern at least
partially matches against a spectral pattern of a known material, then it is
possible to utilize
the known material as a physical catalyst in a reaction system. In this
regard, it may be
desirable to utilize the known material alone or in combination with a
spectral energy catalyst
and/or a spectral catalyst. Still further, it may be possible to utilize
environmental reaction
conditions and/or spectral environmental reaction conditions to cause the
known material to
behave in a manner which is even closer to the designed energy pattern or
spectral pattern.
Further, the application of different spectral energy patterns may cause the
designed catalyst
to behave in different manners, such as, for example, encouraging a first
reaction pathway
with the application of a first spectral energy pattern and encouraging a
second reaction
pathway with the application of a second spectral energy pattern. Likewise,
the changing of
one or more environmental reaction conditions could have a similar effect.
Further, this designed catalyst has applications in all types of reactions
including, but
not limited to, chemical (organic and inorganic), biological, physical,
energy, etc.
Still further, in certain cases, one or more physical species could be used or
combined
in a suitable manner, for example, physical mixing or by a chemical reaction,
to obtain a
physical catalyst material exhibiting the appropriate designed spectral energy
pattern (e.g.,
spectral pattern) to achieve a desired reaction pathway. Accordingly, a
combination of
designed catalysts) (e.g., a physical catalyst which is known or manufactured
expressly to
function as a physical catalyst), spectral energy catalysts) and/or spectral
catalysts) can
result in a resultant energy pattern (e.g., which in this case can be a
combination of physical
catalysts) and/or spectral catalyst(s)) which is conducive to forming desired
reaction
products) and/or following a desired reaction pathway at a desired reaction
rate. In this
regard, various line width broadening and/or narrowing of spectral energy
patterns) and/or
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spectral patterns) may occur when the designed catalyst is combined with
various spectral
energy patterns and/or spectral patterns.
It is important to consider the energy interactions between all components of
the
reaction system when calculating or determining an appropriate designed
catalyst. There will
be a particular combination of specific energy patterns) (e.g.,
electromagnetic energy) that
will interact with the designed catalyst to form an applied spectral energy
pattern. The
particular frequencies, for example, of electromagnetic radiation that should
be caused to be
applied to a reaction system should be as many of those frequencies as
possible, when
interacting with the frequencies of the designed catalyst, that can result in
desirable effects to
one or more participants in the reaction system, while eliminating as many of
those
frequencies as possible which result in undesirable effects within the
reaction system.
VII. SPECTRAL PHARMACEUTICALS
Many pharmaceutical agents act as catalysts in biochemical reactions. While
there
are several types of exceptions, the effects of the preponderance of drugs
result from their
interaction with functional macromolecular components of the host organism.
Such
interaction alters the function of the pertinent cellular components and
thereby initiates the
series of biochemical and physiological changes that are characteristic of the
response to the
drug.
A drug is usually described by its prominent effect or by the action thought
to be the
basis of that effect. However, such descriptions should not obscure the fact
that no drug
produces only a single effect. Morphine is correctly described as an
analgesic, but it also
suppresses the cough reflex, causes sedation, respiratory depression,
constipation, bronchiolar
constriction, release of histamine, antiduresis, and a variety of other side
effects. A drug is
adequately characterized only in terms of its full spectrum of effects and few
drugs are
sufficiently selective to be described as specific.
One of the objects of this invention is to provide a more targeted mode for
achieving a
desired response from a biological system by introducing a spectral energy
catalyst (e.g., a
spectral catalyst) in place of, or to augment, pharmaceutical agents which may
mimic the
effect or mechanism of action of a given enzyme, and thereby, limit the
occurrence of
unwanted side effects commonly associated with pharmaceutical agents.
Moreover, certain
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reactions can be achieved with spectral catalysts that are not achievable with
any specific
physical catalyst pharmaceutical.
A first embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves DHEA and melatonin
which are both pharmaceuticals thought to be involved in slowing and/or
reversing the aging
process. The electromagnetic spectral pattern for DHEA and melatonin could be
emitted
from light bulbs present in the home or the workplace. The resultant EM
radiation can be
absorbed directly into the central nervous system via the optic nerves and
tracts, producing
anti-aging effects at the site of the genesis of the aging phenomenon, namely,
the central
nervous system and the pineal-hypothalamus-pituitary system.
A second embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves a lowering of LDL
cholesterol levels with pharmaceutical spectral patterns emitted by, for
example, coils in the
mattress of a bed or in a mattress pad that negatively catalyzes HMG CoA
reductase. Thus,
desirable effects can be achieved by targeting appropriate biologics with
unique spectral
patterns designed to produce a desired reaction product.
A third embodiment of this aspect of the invention involves the treatment of
bacterial,
fungal, parasitic, and viral illnesses using spectral pharmaceuticals.
Specifically, by
generating the catalytic spectral pattern of known drug catalysts, similar
effects to physical
drug catalysts can be achieved.
Another embodiment of this aspect of the invention provides a treatment for
asthma
which involves the autonomic nervous system playing a key role in the control
of
bronchometer tone both in normal airways and in those of individuals with
bronchospastic
disease. The effects of the autonomic nervous system are thought to be
mediated through
their action on the stores of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and cyclic
guanosine
monophosphate (GMP) in bronchial smooth muscle cells. Further, acetycholine,
or
stimulation by the vagus nerve, is thought to provide an increase in the
amounts of cyclic
GMP relative to cyclic AMP, leading to smooth muscle contraction and asthma
attacks.
Conversely, an increase within bronchial smooth muscle cells in the levels of
cyclic AMP
relative to cyclic GMP leads to relaxation of the bronchial muscles and thus
provides a
treatment for asthma. The enzyme, adenylate cyclase, catalyses the formation
of cyclic AMP.
Accordingly, by applying (e.g. a pendant worn around the neck) the catalytic
spectral pattern
for adenylate cyclase, relief from asthma could be achieved.
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Some of the most amazing physical catalysts are enzymes which catalyze the
multitudinous reactions in living organisms. Of all the intricate processes
that have evolved
in living systems, none are more striking or more essential than enzyme
catalysis. The
amazing fact about enzymes is that not only can they increase the rate of
biochemical
reactions by factors ranging from 106 to 1012, but they are also highly
specific. An enzyme
acts only on certain molecules while leaving the rest of the system
unaffected. Some
enzymes have been found to have a high degree of specificity while others can
catalyze a
number of reactions. If a biological reaction can be catalyzed by only one
enzyme, then the
loss of activity or reduced activity of that enzyme could greatly inhibit the
specific reaction
and could be detrimental to a living organism. If this situation occurs, a
catalytic spectral
energy pattern could be determined for the exact enzyme or mechanism, then
genetic
deficiencies could be augmented by providing the spectral energy catalyst to
replace the
enzyme.
VIII. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION
All of the above information disclosing the invention should provide a
comprehensive
understanding of the main aspects of the invention. However, in order to
understand the
invention further, the invention shall now be discussed in terms of some of
the representative
objects or goals to be achieved.
1. One object of this invention is to control or direct a reaction pathway in
a reaction
system by applying a spectral energy pattern in the form of a spectral
catalyst having at least
one electromagnetic energy frequency which may initiate, activate, and/or
affect at least one
of the participants involved in the reaction system.
2. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selective and
economical
process for replacing a known physical catalyst in a reaction system
comprising the steps of
duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst
(e.g., at least
one frequency of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst) to form a
catalytic spectral pattern;
and
applying to the reaction system at least a portion of the catalytic spectral
pattern.
3. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to augment a
physical
catalyst in a reaction system with its own catalytic spectral pattern
comprising the steps of:
determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physical catalyst; and
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duplicating at least one frequency of the spectral pattern of the physical
catalyst with
at least one electromagnetic energy emitter source to form a catalytic
spectral pattern; and
applying to the reaction system at least one frequency of the catalytic
spectral pattern
at a sufficient intensity and for a sufficient duration to catalyze the
formation of reaction
products) in the reaction system.
4. Another object of the invention is to provide an efficient, selective and
economical
process for replacing a known physical catalyst in a reaction system
comprising the steps of:
duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst
(e.g., at least
one frequency of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst) to form a
catalytic spectral pattern;
and
applying to the reaction system at least a portion of the catalytic spectral
pattern; and,
applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern which forms an
applied
spectral energy pattern when combined with said catalytic spectral pattern.
S. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to replace a
physical catalyst
in a reaction system comprising the steps of:
determining an electromagnetic spectral pattern of the physical catalyst;
duplicating at least one frequency of the electromagnetic spectral pattern of
the
physical catalyst with at least one electromagnetic energy emitter source to
form a catalytic
spectral pattern;
applying to the reaction system at least one frequency of the catalytic
spectral pattern;
and
applying at least one additional spectral energy pattern to form an applied
spectral
energy pattern, said applied spectral energy pattern being applied at a
sufficient intensity and
for a sufficient duration to catalyze the formation of at least one reaction
product in the
reaction system.
6. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and/or
direct a
reaction system with a spectral catalyst by augmenting a physical catalyst
comprising the
steps of:
duplicating at least a portion of a spectral pattern of a physical catalyst
(e.g., at least
one frequency of a spectral pattern of the physical catalyst) with at least
one electromagnetic
energy emitter source to form a catalytic spectral pattern;
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applying to the reaction system, (e.g., irradiating) at least a portion of the
catalytic
spectral pattern (e.g., an electromagnetic spectral pattern having a frequency
range of from
about radio frequency to about ultraviolet frequency) at a sufficient
intensity and for a
sufficient duration to catalyze the reaction system; and
S introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.
The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalyst into
the
reaction system before, andlor during, and/or after applying said catalytic
spectral pattern to
the reaction system.
7. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and/or
direct a
reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst by augmenting a physical
catalyst comprising
the steps of:
applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensity and
for a
sufficient duration to catalyze the reaction system;
introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.
The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalyst into
the
reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applying the spectral
energy catalyst to the
reaction system.
8. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and/or
direct a
reaction system with a spectral catalyst and a spectral energy catalyst by
augmenting a
physical catalyst comprising the steps of
applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity and for a
sufficient
duration to at least partially catalyze the reaction system;
applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensity and
for a
sufficient duration to at least partially catalyze the reaction system; and
introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.
The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalyst into
the
reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applying the spectral
catalyst and/or the
spectral energy catalyst to the reaction system. Moreover, the spectral
catalyst and spectral
energy catalyst may be applied simultaneously to form an applied spectral
energy pattern or
they may be applied sequentially either at the same time or at different times
from when the
physical catalyst is introduced into the reaction system.
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9. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and/or
direct a
reaction system with a spectral catalyst and a spectral energy catalyst and a
spectral
environmental reaction condition, with or without a physical catalyst,
comprising the steps of:
applying at least one spectral catalyst at a sufficient intensity and for a
sufficient
duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;
applying at least one spectral energy catalyst at a sufficient intensity and
for a
sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway;
applying at last one spectral environmental reaction condition at a sufficient
intensity
and for a sufficient duration to catalyze a reaction pathway, whereby when any
of said at least
one spectral catalyst, said at least one spectral energy catalyst and/or at
least one spectral
environmental reaction condition are applied at the same time, they form an
applied spectral
energy pattern; and
introducing the physical catalyst into the reaction system.
The above method may be practiced by introducing the physical catalyst into
the
reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applying any one of, or
any combination
of, the spectral catalyst and/or the spectral energy catalyst and/or the
spectral environmental
reaction condition to the reaction system. Likewise, the spectral catalyst
and/or the spectral
energy catalyst and/or the spectral environmental reaction condition can be
provided
sequentially or continuously.
10. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and
direct a
reaction system with an applied spectral energy pattern and a spectral energy
catalyst
comprising the steps of:
applying at least one applied spectral energy pattern at a sufficient
intensity and for a
sufficient duration to catalyze the reaction system, whereby said at least one
applied spectral
energy pattern comprises at least two members selected from the group
consisting of catalytic
spectral energy pattern, catalytic spectral pattern, spectral catalyst,
spectral energy catalyst,
spectral energy pattern, spectral environmental reaction condition and
spectral pattern; and
applying at least one spectral energy catalyst to the reaction system.
The above method may be practiced by introducing the applied spectral energy
pattern into the reaction system before, and/or during, and/or after applying
the spectral
energy catalyst to the reaction system. Moreover, the spectral energy catalyst
and the applied
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spectral energy pattern can be provided sequentially or continuously. If
applied continuously,
a new applied spectral energy pattern is formed.
11. Another object of this invention is to provide a method to affect and
direct a
reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst comprising the steps of:
determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for starting
reactants) in
said reaction system;
determining at least a portion of a spectral energy pattern for reaction
products) in
said reaction system;
calculating an additive spectral energy pattern (e.g., at least one
electromagnetic
frequency) from said reactants) and reaction products) spectral energy
patterns to determine
a required spectral energy catalyst (e.g., a spectral catalyst);
generating at least a portion of the required spectral energy catalyst (e.g.,
at least one
electromagnetic frequency of the required spectral catalyst); and
applying to the reaction system (e.g., irradiating with electromagnetic
energy) said at
least a portion of the required spectral energy catalyst (e.g., spectral
catalyst) to form desired
reaction product(s).
12. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect and
direct a
reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst comprising the steps of:
targeting at least one participant in said reaction system with at least one
spectral
energy catalyst to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/or stabilization
of at least one
transient and/or at least one intermediate to result in desired reaction
product(s).
13. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with a spectral energy pattern to result in at least one reaction
product comprising:
applying at least one spectral energy pattern for a sufficient time and at a
sufficient
intensity to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at
least one
transient and/or at least one intermediate to result in desired reaction
products) at a desired
reaction rate.
14. Another object of the invention is to provide a method to affect and
direct a
reaction system with a spectral energy catalyst and at least one of the
spectral environmental
reaction condition comprising the steps of
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applying at least one applied spectral energy catalyst to at least one
participant in said
reaction system; and
applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition to said
reaction system
to cause the formation and/or stimulation and/or stabilization of at least one
transient and/or
at least one intermediate to permit desired reaction products) to form.
15. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with a spectral energy catalyst to result in at least one reaction
product comprising:
applying at least one frequency (e.g., electromagnetic) which heterodynes with
at least
one reactant frequency to cause the formation of and/or stimulation and/or
stabilization of at
least one transient and/or at least one intermediate to result in desired
reaction product(s).
16. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with at least one spectral energy pattern resulting in at least one
reaction product
comprising:
applying a sufficient number of frequencies (e.g., electromagnetic) and/or
fields (e.g.,
electric and/or magnetic) to result in an applied spectral energy pattern
which stimulates all
transients and/or intermediates required in a reaction pathway to result in
desired reaction
product(s).
17. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with a spectral energy catalyst resulting in at least one reaction
product comprising:
targeting at least one participant in said reaction system with at least one
frequency
and/or field to form, indirectly, at least one transient and/or at least one
intermediate,
whereby formation of said at least one transient and/or at least one
intermediate results in the
formation of an additional at least one transient and/or at least one
additional intermediate.
18. It is another object of the invention to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with a spectral energy catalyst resulting in at least one reaction
product comprising:
targeting at least one spectral energy catalyst to at least one participant in
said reaction
system to form indirectly at least one transient and/or at least one
intermediate, whereby
formation of said at least one transient and/or at least one intermediate
results in the
formation of an additional at least one transient and/or at least one
additional intermediate.
19. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for directing
a reaction
system along a desired reaction pathway comprising:
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applying at least one targeting approach selected from the group of approaches
consisting of direct resonance targeting, harmonic targeting and non-harmonic
heterodyne
targeting.
In this regard, these targeting approaches can cause the formation and/or
stimulation
and/or stabilization of at least one transient and/or at least one
intermediate to result in
desired reaction product(s).
20. It is another object of the invention to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system comprising:
applying at least one frequency to at least one participant and/or at least
one
component in said reaction system to cause the formation and/or stimulation
and/or
stabilization of at least one transient and/or at least one intermediate to
result in desired
reaction product(s), whereby said at least one frequency comprises at least
one frequency
selected from the group consisting of direct resonance frequencies, harmonic
resonance
frequencies, non-harmonic heterodyne resonance frequencies, electronic
frequencies,
vibrational frequencies, rotational frequencies, rotational-vibrational
frequencies, fine
splitting frequencies, hyperfine splitting frequencies, electric field
splitting frequencies,
magnetic field splitting frequencies, cyclotron resonance frequencies, orbital
frequencies and
nuclear frequencies.
In this regard, the applied frequencies can include any desirable frequency or
combination of frequencies which resonates directly, harmonically or by a non-
harmonic
heterodyne technique, with at least one participant and/or at least one
component in said
reaction system.
21. It is another object of the invention to provide a method for directing a
reaction
system along with a desired reaction pathway with a spectral energy pattern
comprising:
applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause the spectral energy
pattern (e.g.,
spectral pattern) of at least one participant and/or at least one component in
said reaction
system to at least partially overlap with the spectral energy pattern (e.g.,
spectral pattern) of at
least one other participant and/or at least one other component in said
reaction system to
permit the transfer of energy between said at least two participants and/or
components.
22. It is another object of the invention to provide a method for catalyzing a
reaction
system with a spectral energy pattern resulting in at least one reaction
product comprising:
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applying at least one spectral energy pattern to cause the spectral energy
pattern of at
least one participant and/or component in said reaction system to at least
partially overlap
with a spectral energy pattern of at least one other participant and/or
component in said
reaction system to permit the transfer of energy between the at least two
participants and/or
components, thereby causing the formation of said at least one reaction
product.
23. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for catalyzing
a reaction
system with a spectral energy catalyst resulting in at least one reaction
product comprising:
applying at least one frequency and/or field to cause spectral energy pattern
(e.g.,
spectral pattern) broadening of at'least one.participant (e.g., at least one
reactant) and/or
component in said reaction system to cause a transfer of energy to occur
resulting in
transformation (e.g., chemically, physically, phase or otherwise) of at least
one participant
and/or at least one component in said reaction system.
In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction product which is
of a
different chemical composition and/or different physical or crystalline
composition and/or
phases than any of the chemical and/or physical or crystalline compositions
and/or phases of
any starting reactant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion
of a reactant
into a reaction product.
24. It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for catalyzing
a reaction
system with a spectral energy catalyst resulting in at least one reaction
product comprising:
applying an applied spectral energy pattern to cause spectral energy pattern
(e.g.,
spectral pattern) broadening of at least one participant (e.g., at least one
reactant) and%or
component in said reaction system to cause a transfer of energy to occur
resulting in
transformation (e.g., chemically, physically, phase or otherwise) of at least
one participant
and/or at least one component in said reaction system.
In this regard, the transformation may result in a reaction product which is
of a
different chemical composition and/or different physical or crystalline
composition and/or
phase than any of the chemical and/or physical or crystalline compositions
and/or phases of
any starting reactant. Thus, only transients may be involved in the conversion
of a reactant
into a reaction product.
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25. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for controlling a
reaction
and/or directing a reaction pathway by utilizing at least one spectral
environmental reaction
condition, comprising:
forming a reaction system; and
applying at least one spectral environmental reaction condition to direct said
reaction
system along a desired reaction pathway.
In this regard, the applied spectral environmental reaction condition can be
used alone
or in combination with other environmental reaction conditions to achieve
desired results.
Further, additional spectral energy patterns may also be applied,
simultaneously and/or
continuously with said spectral environmental reaction condition.
26. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for designing a
catalyst
where no catalyst previously existed (e.g., a physical catalyst and/or
spectral energy catalyst),
to be used in a reaction system, comprising:
determining a required spectral pattern to obtain a desired reaction and/or
desired
reaction pathway and/or desired reaction rate; and
~~°'d:~
designing a catalyst~natenal, ., or combination of materials, and/or spectral
energy catalysts) that exhibits) a spectral pattern that approximates the
required spectral
pattern.
In this regard, the designed catalyst material may comprise be a physical
admixing of
one or more materials and/or more materials that have been combined by an
appropriate
reaction, such as a chemical reaction. The designed material may be enhanced
in function by
one or more spectral energy patterns that may also be applied to the reaction
system.
Moreover, the application of different spectral energy patterns may cause the
designed
material to behave in different manners, such as, for example, encouraging a
first reaction
pathway with the application of a first spectral energy pattern and
encouraging a second
reaction pathway with the application of a second spectral energy pattern.
Likewise, the
changing of one or more environmental reaction conditions could have a similar
effect.
Further, this designed material has applications in all types of reactions
including, but
not limited to, chemical (organic and inorganic), biological, physical, etc.
While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation of
operation, it
is believed that when frequencies match, energy transfers. The transfer of
energy can be a
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sharing of energy between two entities and/or, for example, a transfer of
energy from one
entity into another entity. The entities may both be, for example, matter, or
one entity may be
matter and the other energy (e.g. energy may be a spectral energy pattern such
as
electromagnetic frequencies, and/or an electric field and/or a magnetic
field).
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
Figures 1 a and 1 b show a graphic representation of an acoustic or
electromagnetic
wave.
Figure lc shows the combination wave which results from the combining of the
waves in
Figure 1 a and Figure 1 b.
Figures 2a and 2b show waves of different amplitudes but the same frequency.
Figure
2a shows a low amplitude wave and Figure 2b shows a high amplitude wave.
Figures 3a and 3b show frequency diagrams. Figure 3a shows a time vs.
amplitude
plot and Figure 3b shows a frequency vs. amplitude plot.
Figure 4 shows a specific example of a heterodyne progression.
Figure 5 shows a graphical example of the heterodyned series from Figure 4.
Figure 6 shows fractal diagrams.
Figures 7a and 7b show hydrogen energy level diagrams.
Figures 8a-8c show three different simple reaction profiles.
Figures 9a and 9b show fine frequency diagram curves for hydrogen.
Figure 10 shows various frequencies and intensities for hydrogen.
Figures l la and l 1b show two light amplification diagrams with stimulated
emission/population inversions.
Figure 12 shows a resonance curve where the resonance frequency is f°,
an upper
frequency = f2 and a lower frequency = fl, wherein fl and f2 are at about 50%
of the amplitude
of fo.
Figures 13a and 13b show two different resonance curves having different
quality
factors. Figure 13a shows a narrow resonance curve with a high Q and Figure
13b shows a
broad resonance curve with a low Q.
Figure 14 shows two different energy transfer curves at fundamental resonance
frequencies (curve A) and a harmonic frequency (curve B).
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Figures 15a-c show how a spectral pattern varies at three different
temperatures.
Figure 15a is at a low temperature, Figure 15b is at a moderate temperature
and Figure 15c is
at a high temperature.
Figure 16 is spectral curve showing a line width which corresponds to f2 - f,.
Figures 17a and 17b show two amplitude vs. frequency curves. Figure 17a shows
distinct spectral curves at low temperature; and Figure 17b shows overlapping
of spectral
curves at a higher temperature.
Figure 18a shows the influence of temperature on the resolution of infrared
absorption
spectra; Figure 18b shows blackbody radiation; and Figure 18c shows curves A
and C at low
temperature, and broadened curves A and C* at higher temperature, with C* also
shifted.
Figure 19 shows spectral patterns which exhibit the effect of pressure
broadening on
the compound NH3.
Figure 20 shows the theoretical shape of pressure-broadened lines at three
different
pressures for a single compound.
Figures 21 a and 21 b are two graphs which show experimental confirmation of
changes in spectral patterns at increased pressures. Figure 21 a corresponds
to a spectral
pattern representing the absorption of water vapor in air and Figure 21b is a
spectral pattern
which corresponds to the absorption of NH3 at one atmosphere pressure.
Figure 22a shows a representation of radiation from a single atom and Figure
22b
shows a representation of radiation from a group of atoms.
Figures 23a-d show four different spectral curves, three of which exhibit self
absorption patterns. Figure 23a is a standard spectral curve not showing any
self absorption;
Figure 23b shows the shifting of resonant frequency due to self absorption;
Figure 23c shows
a self reversal spectral pattern due to self absorption; and Figure 23d shows
an attenuation
example of a self reversal spectral pattern.
Figures 24a shows an absorption spectra of alcohol and phthalic acid in
hexane;
Figure 24b shows an absorption spectra for the absorption of iodine in alcohol
and carbon
tetracholoride; and Figure 24c shows the effect of mixtures of alcohol and
benzene on the
solute phenylazophenol.
Figure 25a shows a tetrahedral unit representation of aluminum oxide and
Figure 25b
shows a representation of a tetrahedral units for silicon dioxide.
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Figure 26a shows a truncated octahedron crystal structure for aluminum or
silicon
combined with oxygen and Figure 26b shows a plurality of truncated octahedrons
joined
together to represent zeolite. Figure 26c shows truncated octahedrons for
zeolites "X" and
"Y" which are joined together by oxygen bridges.
Figure 27 is a graph which shows the influence of copper and bismuth on
zinc/cadmium line ratios.
Figure 28 is a graph which shows the influence of magnesium on copper/aluminum
intensity ratio.
Figure 29 shows the concentration effects on the atomic spectra frequencies of
N-
methyl urethane in carbon tetrachloride solutions at the following
concentrations: a) 0.01 M;
b) 0.03M; c) 0.06M; d) O.IOM; 3) 0.15M.
Figure 30 shows plots corresponding to the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
Specifically, Figure 30a corresponds to Balmer Series 2 for hydrogen; and
Figure 30b
corresponds to emission spectrum for the 456 THz frequency of hydrogen.
Figure 31 corresponds to a high resolution laser saturation spectrum for the
456 THz
frequency of hydrogen.
Figure 32 shows fine splitting frequencies which exist under a typical
spectral curve.
Figure 33 corresponds to a diagram of atomic electron levels (n) in fine
structure
frequencies (a).
Figure 34 shows fine structures of the n=1 and n=2 levels of a hydrogen atom.
Figure 35 shows multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels of carbon,
oxygen
and fluorine: 43.5 cm = 1.3 THz; 16.4crri' = 490 GHz; 226.5 cm 1 = 6.77 THz;
158.5 cm 1 -
4.74 THz; 404 cm I = 12.1 THz.
Figure 36 shows a vibration band of SF6 at a wavelength of 10~m2.
Figure 37a shows a spectral pattern similar to that shown in Figure 36, with a
particular frequency magnified. Figure 37b shows fine structure frequencies in
greater detail
for the compound SF6.
Figure 38 shows an energy level diagram which corresponds to different energy
levels
for a molecule where rotational corresponds to "J", vibrational corresponds to
"v" and
electronic levels correspond to "n".
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Figures 39a and 39b correspond to pure rotational absorption spectrum of
gaseous
hydrogen chloride as recorded with an interferometer; Figure39b shows the same
spectrum of
Figure 39a at a lower resolution (i.e., not showing any fine frequencies).
Figure 40 corresponds to the rotational spectrum for hydrogen cyanide. "J"
corresponds to the rotational level.
Figure 41 shows a spectrum corresponding to the additive heterodyne of v~ and
v5 in
the spectral band showing the frequency band at A (v1 - v 5), B = v , - 2v5.
Figure 42 shows a graphical representation of fine structure spectrum showing
the
first four rotational frequencies for CO in the ground state. The difference
(heterodyne)
between the molecular fine structure rotational frequencies is 2X the
rotational constant B
(i.e., f2- fl = 2B). In this case, B= 57.6 GHz (57,635.970 MHz).
Figure 43a shows rotational and vibrational frequencies (MHz) for LiF. Figure
43b
shows differences between rotational and vibrational frequencies for LiF.
Figure 44 shows the rotational transition J = 1 --> 2 for the triatomic
molecule OCS.
The vibrational state is given by vibrational quantum numbers in brackets (v~,
v2, v3), v2 have
a superscript [l]. In this case, l = 1. A subscript 1 is applied to the lower-
frequency
component of the l-type doublet, and 2 to the higher-frequency components. The
two lines at
(0110) and (0110) are an l-type doublet, separated by q,.
Figure 45 shows the rotation-vibration band and fme structure frequencies for
SF6.
Figure 46 shows a fine structure spectrum for SF6 from zero to 300 being
magnified.
Figures 47a and 47b show the magnification of two curves from fme structure of
SF6
showing hyperfine structure frequencies. Note the regular spacing of the
hyperfine structure
curves. Figure 47a shows magnification of the curve marked with a single
asterisk (*) in
Figure 46 and Figure 47b shows the magnification of the curved marked with a
double
asterisk (* *) in Figure 46.
Figure 48 shows an energy level diagram corresponding to the hyperfine
splitting for
the hyperfine structure in the n = 2 to n = 3 transition for hydrogen.
Figure 49 shows the hyperfine structure in the J =1 -~ 2 to rotational
transition of
CH3I.
Figure 50 shows the hyperfine structure of the J = 1--> 2 transition for C1CN
in the
ground vibrational state.
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Figure 51 shows energy level diagrams and hyperfine frequencies for the NO
molecule.
Figure 52 shows a spectrum corresponding to the hyperfine frequencies for NH3.
Figure 53 shows hyperfine structure and doubling of the NH3 spectrum for
rotational
level J = 3. The upper curves in Figure 53 show experimental data, while the
lower curves
are derived from theoretical calculations. Frequency increases from left to
right in 60 KHz
intervals.
Figure 54 shows a hyperfine structure and doubling of NH3 spectrum for
rotational
level J=4. The upper curves in each of Figures 54 show experimental data,
while the lower
curves are derived from theoretical calculations. Frequency increases from
left to right in 60
KHz intervals.
Figure SS shows a Stark effect for potassium. In particular, the schematic
dependence
of the 4S and SP energy levels on the electric field.
Figure 56 shows a graph plotting the deviation from zero-field positions of
the
Sp2P~i2~- 4sZS i, ,3i2transition wavenumbers against the square of the
electric field.
Figure 57 shows the frequency components of the J = 0 --~ 1 rotational
transition for
CH3C1, as a function of field strength. Frequency is given in megacycles (MHz)
and electric
field strength (esu cm) is given as the square of the field E2, in esu2/cm2.
Figure 58 shows the theoretical and experimental measurements of Stark effect
in the
J = 1 -> 2 transition of the molecule OCS. The unaltered absolute rotational
frequency is
plotted at zero, and the frequency splitting and shifting is denoted as MHz
higher or lower
than the original frequency.
Figure 59 shows patterns of Stark components for transitions in the rotation
of an
asymmetric top molecule. Specifically, Figure 59a shows the J = 4 ~ 5
transitions; and
Figure 59b shows the J = 4 -> 4 transitions. The electric field is large
enough for complete
spectral resolution.
Figure 60 shows the Stark effect for the OCS molecule on the J = 1 -> 2
transition
with applied electric fields at various frequencies. The "a" curve represents
the Stark effect
with a static DC electric field; the "b" curve represents broadening and
blurring of the Stark
frequencies with a 1 KHz electric field; and the "c" curve represents normal
Stark type effect
with electric field of 1,200 KHz.
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Figure 61 a shows a construction of a Stark waveguide and Figure 61 b shows a
distribution of fields in the Starck waveguide.
Figure 62a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium "D" lines; and Figure 62b shows
the
energy level diagram for transitions in the Zeeman effect for sodium "D"
lines.
Figure 63 is a graph which shows the splitting of the ground term of the
oxygen atom
as a function of magnetic field.
Figure 64 is a graphic which shows the dependence of the Zeeman effect on
magnetic
field strength for the "3P" state of silicon.
Figure 65a is a pictorial which shows a normal Zeeman effect and Figure 65b is
a
pictorial which shows an anomolous Zeeman effect.
Figure 66 shows anomalous Zeeman effect for zinc 3P ~ 3S.
Figure 67a shows a graphic representation of four Zeeman splitting frequencies
and
Figure 67b shows a graphic representation of four new heterodyned differences.
Figures 68a and 68b show graphs of typical Zeeman splitting patterns for two
different transitions in a paramagnetic molecule.
Figure 69 shows the frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontally across the
Table; and
the frequencies of platinum listed vertically on the Table.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
In general, thermal energy is used to drive chemical reactions by applying
heat and
increasing the temperature. The addition of heat increases the kinetic
(motion) energy of the
chemical reactants. A reactant with more kinetic energy moves faster and
farther, and is
more likely to take part in a chemical reaction. Mechanical energy likewise,
by stirring and
moving the chemicals, increases their kinetic energy and thus their
reactivity. The addition of
mechanical energy often increases temperature, by increasing kinetic energy.
Acoustic energy is applied to chemical reactions as orderly mechanical waves.
Because of its mechanical nature, acoustic energy can increase the kinetic
energy of chemical
reactants, and can also elevate their temperature(s). Electromagnetic (EM)
energy consists of
waves of electric and magnetic fields. EM energy may also increase the kinetic
energy and
heat in reaction systems. It may energize electronic orbitals or vibrational
motion in some
reactions.
_ _ .__ _ ~. . _. _
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nmn acoustic ana eiectromagnenc energy may consist of waves. The number of
waves in a period of time can be counted. Waves are often drawn, as in Figure
1 a. Usually,
time is placed on the horizontal X-axis. The vertical Y-axis shows the
strength or intensity of
the wave. This is also called the amplitude. A weak wave will be of weak
intensity and will
have low amplitude (see Figure 2a). A strong wave will have high amplitude
(see Figure 2b).
Traditionally, the number of waves per second is counted, to obtain the
frequency.
Frequency = Number of wavesltime = Waves/second = Hz.
Another name for "waves per second", is ."hertz" (abbreviated "Hz"). Frequency
is
drawn on wave diagrams by showing a different number of waves in a period of
time (see
Figure 3a which shows waves having a frequency of 2 Hz and 3 Hz). It is also
drawn by
placing frequency itself, rather than time, on the X-axis (see Figure 3b which
shows the same
2 Hz and 3Hz waves plotted differently).
Energy waves and frequency have some interesting properties, and may interact
in
some interesting ways. The manner in which wave energies interact, depends
largely on the
frequency. For example, when two waves of energy interact, each having the
same
amplitude, but one at a frequency of 400 Hz and the other at 100 Hz, the waves
will add their
frequencies, to produce a new frequency of 500 Hz (i.e., the "sum" frequency).
The
frequency of the waves will also subtract to produce a frequency of 300 HZ
(i.e., the
"difference" frequency). All wave energies typically add and subtract in this
manner, and
such adding and subtracting is referred to as heterodyning. Common results of
heterodyning
are familiar to most as harmonics in music
There is a mathematical, as well as musical basis, to the harmonics produced
by
heterodyning. Consider, for example, a continuous progression of heterodyned
frequencies.
As discussed above, beginning with 400 Hz and 100 Hz, the sum frequency is S00
Hz and the
difference frequency is 300 Hz. If these frequencies are further heterodyned
(added and
subtracted) then new frequencies of 800 (i.e., S00 + 300) and 200 (i.e., S00-
300) are obtained.
The further heterodyning of 800 and 200 results in 1,000 and 600 Hz as shown
in Figure 4.
A mathematical pattern begins to emerge. Both the sum and the difference
columns
contain alternating series of numbers that double with each set of
heterodynes. In the sum
column, 400 Hz, 800 Hz, and 1,600 Hz, alternates with 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, and
2000 Hz. The
same sort of doubling phenomenon occurs in the difference column.
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Heterodyning of frequencies is the natural process that occurs whenever
waveform
energies interact. Heterodyning results in patterns of increasing numbers that
are
mathematically derived. The number patterns are integer multiples of the
original
frequencies. These multiples are called harmonics. For example, 800 Hz and
1600 Hz are
harmonics of 400 Hz. In musical terms, 800 Hz is one octave above 400 Hz, and
1600 Hz is
two octaves higher. It is important to understand the mathematical heterodyne
basis for
harmonics, which occurs in all waveform energies, and thus in all of nature.
The mathematics of frequencies is very important. Frequency heterodynes
increase
mathematically in visual patterns (see Figure 5). Mathematics has a name for
these visual
patterns of Figure 5. These patterns are called fractals. A fractal is defined
as a mathematical
function which produces a series of self similar patterns or numbers. Fractal
patterns have
spurred a great deal of interest historically because fractal patterns are
found everywhere in
nature. Fractals can be found in the patterning of large expanses of
coastline, all the way
down to microorganisms. Fractals are found in the behavior of organized
insects and in the
behavior of fluids. The visual patterns produced by fractals are very distinct
and
recognizable. A typical fractal pattern is shown in Figure 6.
A heterodyne is a mathematical function, governed by mathematical equations,
just
like a fractal. A heterodyne also produces self similar patterns of numbers,
like a fractal. If
graphed, a heterodyne series produces the same familiar visual shape and form
which is so
characteristic of fractals. It is interesting to compare the heterodyne series
in Figure 5, with
the fractal series in Figure 6.
Heterodynes are fractals; the conclusion is inescapable. Heterodynes and
fractals are
both mathematical functions which produce a series of self similar patterns or
numbers.
Wave energies interact in heterodyne patterns. Thus, all wave energies
interact as fractal
patterns. Once it is understood that the fundamental process of interacting
energies is itself a
fractal process, it becomes easier to understand why so many creatures and
systems in nature
also exhibit fractal patterns. The fractal processes and patterns of nature
are established at a
fundamental or basic level.
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Accordingly, since energy interacts by heterodyning, matter should also be
capable of
interacting by a heterodyning process. All matter whether in large or small
forms, has what is
called a natural oscillatory frequency. The natural oscillatory frequency
("NOF") of an
object, is the frequency at which the object prefers to vibrate, once set in
motion. The NOF
of an object is related to many factors including size, shape, dimension, and
composition.
The smaller an object is, the smaller the distance it has to cover when it
oscillates back and
forth. The smaller the distance, the faster it can oscillate, and the higher
its NOF.
For example, consider a wire composed of metal atoms. The wire has a natural
oscillatory frequency. The individual metal atoms also have unique natural
oscillatory
frequencies. The NOF of the atoms and the NOF of the wire heterodyne by adding
and
subtracting, just the way energy heterodynes.
NOFetom + NOFw.;,.e = Si1111 Frequencya~am+wlre
and
NOF$to", - NUFW;~e = Difference Frequencya~om-Wire
If the wire is stimulated with the Difference Frequencyatom-wire, the
difference
frequency will heterodyne (add) with the NOFW,re to produce NOFatom~ (natural
oscillatory
frequency of the atom) and the atom will absorb with the energy, thereby
becoming
stimulated to a higher energy level. Cirac and Zoeller reported this
phenomenon in 1995, and
they used a laser to generate the Difference Frequency.
Difference Frequencyacom-W".e + NOFW;re = NOFatom
Matter heterodynes with matter in a manner similar to the way in which wave
energies heterodyne with other wave energies. This means that matter in its
various states
may also interact, in fractal processes. This interaction of matter by fractal
processes assists
in explaining why so many creatures and systems in nature exhibit fractal
processes and
patterns. Matter, as well as energy, interacts by the mathematical equations
of heterodynes,
to produce harmonics and fractal patterns. That is why there are fractals
everywhere around
us.
Thus, energy heterodynes with energy, and matter heterodynes with matter.
However, perhaps even more important is that matter can heterodyne with energy
(and visa
versa). In the metal wire discussion above, the Difference Frequencyacom-W,re
in the
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experiment by Cirac and Zoeller was provided by a laser which used
electromagnetic wave
energy at a frequency equal to the Difference Frequencyacom-Wire. The matter
in the wire, via
its natural oscillatory frequency, heterodyned with the electromagnetic wave
energy
frequency of the laser to produce the frequency of an individual atom of
matter. This shows
that energy and matter do heterodyne with each other.
In general, when energy encounters matter, one of three possibilities occur.
The
energy either bounces off the matter (i.e., is reflected energy), passes
through the matter (i.e.,
is transmitted energy), or interacts and/or combines with the matter (e.g., is
absorbed or
heterodynes with the matter). If the energy heterodynes with the matter, new
frequencies of
energy and/or matter will be produced by mathematical processes of sums and
differences. If
the frequency thus produced matches an NOF of the matter, the energy will be,
at least
partially, absorbed, and the matter will be stimulated to, for example, a
higher energy level,
(i.e., it possesses more energy). A crucial factor which determines which of
these three
possibilities will happen is the frequency of the energy compared to the
frequency of the
matter. If the frequencies do not match, the energy will either be reflected,
or will pass on
through as transmitted energy. If the frequencies of the energy and the matter
match either
directly (e.g., are close to each other, as discussed in greater detail later
herein), or match
indirectly (e.g., heterodynes), then the energy is capable of interacting
and/or combining with
the matter.
Another term often used for describing the matching of frequencies is
resonance. In
this invention, use of the term resonance will typically mean that frequencies
of matter and/or
energy match. For example, if the frequency of energy and the frequency of
matter match,
the energy and matter are in resonance and the energy is capable of combining
with the
matter. Resonance, or frequency matching, is merely an aspect of heterodyning
that permits
the coherent transfer and combination of energy with matter.
In the example above with the wire and atoms, resonance could have been
created
with the atom, by stimulating the atom with a laser frequency exactly matching
the NOF of
the atom. In this case, the atom would be energized with its own resonant
frequency and the
energy would be transferred to the atom directly. Alternatively, as was
performed in the
actual wire/laser experiment, resonance could also have been created with the
atom by using
the heterodyning that naturally occurs between differing frequencies. Thus,
the resonant
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frequency of the atom (NOFacom) c~ be produced indirectly, as an additive (or
subtractive)
heterodyned frequency, between the resonant frequency of the wire (NOF~,,;~e)
and the applied
frequency of the laser. Either direct resonance, or indirect resonance through
heterodyned
frequency matching, produces resonance and thus permits the combining of
matter and
energy. When frequencies match, energy transfers.
Heterodyning produces indirect resonance. Heterodyning also produces
harmonics,
(i.e., frequencies that are integer multiples of the resonant (NOF) frequency.
For example,
the music note "A" is approximately 440 Hz. If that frequency is doubled to
about 880 Hz,
the note "A" is heard an octave higher. This first octave is called the first
harmonic.
Doubling the note or frequency again, from 880 Hz to 1,760 Hz (i.e., four
times the
frequency of the original note) results in another "A", two octaves above the
original note.
This is called the third harmonic. Every time the frequency is doubled another
octave is
achieved, so these are the even integer multiples of the resonant frequency.
In between the first and third harmonic is the second harmonic, which is three
times
the original note. Musically, this is not an octave like the first and third
harmonics. It is an
octave and a fifth, equal to the second "E" above the original "A". All of the
odd integer
multiples are fifths, rather than octaves. Because harmonics are simply
multiples of the
fundamental natural oscillatory frequency, harmonics stimulate the NOF or
resonant
frequency indirectly. Thus by playing the high "A" at 880 Hz on a piano, the
string for
middle "A" at 440 Hz should also begin to vibrate due to the phenomenon of
harmonics.
Matter and energy in chemical reactions respond to harmonics of resonant
frequencies
much the way musical instruments do. Thus, the resonant frequency of the atom
(NOFa~o~")
can be stimulated indirectly, using one or more of its' harmonic frequencies.
This is because
the harmonic frequency heterodynes with the resonant frequency of the atom
itself (NOFacom).
For example, in the wire/atom example above, if the laser is tuned to 800 THz
and the atom
resonates at 400 THz, heterodyning the two frequencies results in:
800 THz - 400 THz = 400 THz
The 800 THz (the atom's first harmonic), heterodynes with the resonant
frequency of
the atom, to produce the atom's own resonant frequency. Thus the first
harmonic indirectly
resonates with the atom's NOF, and stimulates the atom's resonant frequency as
a first
generation heterodyne.
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Of course, the two frequencies will also heterodyne in the other direction,
producing:
800 THz + 400 THz =1,200 THz
The 1,200 THz frequency is not the resonant frequency of the atom. Thus, part
of the energy
of the laser will heterodyne to produce the resonant frequency of the atom.
The other part of
the energy of the laser heterodynes to a different frequency, that does not
itself stimulate the
resonant frequency of the atom. That is why the stimulation of an object by a
harmonic
frequency of particular strength of amplitude, is typically less than the
stimulation by its' own
resonant (NOF) frequency at the same particular strength.
Although it appears that half the energy of a harmonic is wasted, that is not
necessarily the case. Referring again to the exemplary atom vibrating at 400
THz, exposing
the atom to electromagnetic energy vibrating at 800 THz will result in
frequencies subtracting
and adding as follows:
800 THz - 400 THz = 400 THz
and
800 THz + 400 THz =1,200 THz
The 1,200 THz heterodyne, for which about SO% of the energy appears to be
wasted,
will heterodyne with other frequencies also, such as 800 THz. Thus,
1,200 THz = 800 THz = 400 THz
Also, the 1,200 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:
1,200 THz - 400 THz = 800 THz,
thus producing 800 THz, and the 800 THz will heterodyne with 400 THz:
800 THz - 400 THz = 400 THz,
thus producing 400 THz frequency again. When other generations of heterodynes
of the
seemingly wasted energy are taken into consideration, the amount of energy
transferred by a
first harmonic frequency is much greater than the previously suggested 50%
transfer of
energy. There is not as much energy transferred by this approach when compared
to direct
resonance, but this energy transfer is sufficient to produce a desired effect
(see Figure 14).
As stated previously, Ostwald's theories on catalysts and bond formation were
based
on the kinetic theories of chemistry from the turn of the century. However, it
should now be
understood that chemical reactions are interactions of matter, and that matter
interacts with
other matter through resonance and heterodyning of frequencies; and energy can
just as easily
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interact with matter through a similar processes of resonance and
heterodyning. With the
advent of spectroscopy (discussed in more detail elsewhere herein), it is
evident that matter
produces, for example, electromagnetic energy at the same or substantially the
same
frequencies at which it vibrates. Energy and matter can move about and
recombine with
S other energy or matter, as long as their frequencies match, because when
frequencies match,
energy transfers. In many respects, both philosophically and mathematically,
both matter and
energy can be fundamentally construed as corresponding to frequency.
Accordingly, since
chemical reactions are recombinations of matter driven by energy, chemical
reactions are in
effect, driven just as much by frequency.
Analysis of a typical chemical reaction should be helpful in understanding the
normal
processes disclosed herein. A representative reaction to examine is the
formation of water
from hydrogen and oxygen gases, catalyzed by platinum. Platinum has been known
for some
time to be a good hydrogen catalyst, although the reason for this has not been
well
understood.
Pt
H2 + 1/202 ~ -~ ~ HZO
This reaction is proposed to be a chain reaction, depending on the generation
and
stabilization of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates. The proposed reaction
chain is:
'/z H2
H
T
T H+OZ+HZ
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T
T H20 + OH-
T 1
T OH- + H2
S T J,
H+ H20
Generation of the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates are thought to be crucial
to
this reaction chain. Under normal circumstances, hydrogen and oxygen gas can
be mixed
together for an indefinite amount of time, and they will not form water.
Whenever the
occasional hydrogen molecule splits apart, the hydrogen atoms do not have
adequate energy
to bond with an oxygen molecule to form water. The hydrogen atoms are very
short-lived as
they simply re-bond again to form a hydrogen molecule. Exactly how platinum
catalyzes this
reaction chain is a mystery to the prior art.
The present invention teaches that an important step to catalyzing this
reaction is the
understanding now provided that it is crucial not only to generate the
intermediates, but also
to energize and/or stabilize (i.e., maintain the intermediates for a longer
time), so that the
intermediates have sufficient energy to, for example, react with other
components in the
reaction system. In the case of platinum, the intermediates react with the
reactants to form
product and more intermediates (i.e., by generating, energizing and
stabilizing the hydrogen
intermediate, it has sufficient energy to react with the molecular oxygen
reactant, forming
water and the hydroxy intermediate, instead of falling back into a hydrogen
molecule).
Moreover, by energizing and stabilizing the hydroxy intermediates, the hydroxy
intermediates can react with more reactant hydrogen molecules, and again water
and more
intermediates result from this chain reaction. Thus, generating energizing
and/or stabilizing
the intermediates, influences this reaction pathway. Paralleling nature in
this regard would be
desirable (e.g., nature can be paralleled by increasing the energy levels of
the intermediates).
Specifically, desirable, intermediates can be energized and/or stabilized by
applying at least
one appropriate electromagnetic frequency resonant with the intermediate,
thereby
stimulating the intermediate to a higher energy level. Interestingly, that is
what platinum
does (e.g., various platinum frequencies resonate with the intermediates on
the reaction
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pathway for water formation). Moreover, in the process of energizing and
stabilizing the
reaction intermediates, platinum fosters the generation of more intermediates,
which allows
the reaction chain to continue, and thus catalyzes the reaction.
As a catalyst, platinum takes advantage of many of the ways that frequencies
interact
with each other. Specifically, frequencies interact and resonate with each
other: 1 ) directly,
by matching a frequency; or 2) indirectly, by matching a frequency through
harmonics or
heterodynes. In other words, platinum vibrates at frequencies which both
directly match the
natural oscillatory frequencies of the intermediates, and which indirectly
match their
frequencies, for example, by heterodyning harmonics with the intermediates.
Further, in addition to the specific intermediates of the reaction discussed
above
herein, it should be understood that in this reaction, like in all reactions,
various transients or
transient states also exist. In some cases, transients or transient states may
only involve
different bond angles between similar chemical species or in other cases
transients may
involve completely different chemistries altogether. In any event, it should
be understood that
numerous transient states exist between any particular combination of reactant
and reaction
product.
It should now be understood that physical catalysts produce effects by
generating,
energizing and/or stabilizing all manner of transients, as well as
intermediates. In this regard,
Figure 8a shows a single reactant and a single product. The point "A"
corresponds to the
reactant and the point "B" corresponds to the reaction product. The point "C"
corresponds to
an activated complex. Transients correspond to all those points on the curve
between
reactant "A" and product "B", and can also include the activated complex "C".
In a more complex reaction which involves formation of at least one
intermediate, the
reaction profile looks somewhat different. In this regard, reference is made
to Figure 8b,
which shows reactant "A", product "B", activated complex "C' and C ", and
intermediate
"D". In this particular example, the intermediate "D" exists as a minimum in
the energy
reaction profile of the reaction, while it is surrounded by the activated
complexes C' and C".
However, again, in this particular reaction, transients correspond to anything
between the
reactant "A" and the reaction product "B", which in this particular example,
includes the two
activated complexes "C "' and "C "," as well as the intermediate "D". In the
particular
example of hydrogen and oxygen combining to form water, the reaction profile
is closer to
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that shown in Figure 8c. In this particular reaction profile, "D'" and "D""
could correspond
generally to the intermediates of the hydrogen atom and hydroxy molecule.
Now, with specific reference to the reaction to form water, both intermediates
are
good examples of how platinum produces resonance in an intermediate by
directly matching
a frequency. Hydroxy intermediates vibrate strongly at frequencies of 975 THz
and 1,060
THz. Platinum also vibrates at 975 THz and 1,060 THz. By directly matching the
frequencies of the hydroxy intermediates, platinum can cause resonance in
hydroxy
intermediates, enabling them to be energized, stimulated and/or stabilized
long enough to
take part in chemical reactions. Similarly, platinum also directly matches
frequencies of the
hydrogen intermediates. Platinum resonates with about 10 out of about 24
hydrogen
frequencies in its electronic spectrum (see Figure 69). Specifically, Figure
69 shows the
frequencies of hydrogen listed horizontally across the Table and the
frequencies of platinum
listed vertically on the Table. Thus, by directly resonating with the
intermediates in the
above-described reaction, platinum facilitates the generation, energizing,
stimulating, and/or
stabilizing of the intermediates, thereby catalyzing the desired reaction.
Platinum's interactions with hydrogen are also a good example of matching
frequencies through heterodyning. It is disclosed herein, and shown clearly in
Figure 69, that
many of the platinum frequencies resonate indirectly as harmonics with the
hydrogen atom
intermediate (e.g., harmonic heterodynes). Specifically, fifty-six (56)
frequencies of
platinum (i.e., 33 % of all its frequencies) are harmonics of nineteen (19)
hydrogen
frequencies (i.e., 80% of its 24 frequencies). Fourteen (14) platinum
frequencies are first
harmonics (2X) of seven (7) hydrogen frequencies. And, twelve (12) platinum
frequencies
are third harmonics (4X) of four (4) hydrogen frequencies. Thus, the presence
of platinum
causes massive indirect harmonic resonance in the hydrogen atom, as well as
significant
direct resonance.
Further focus on the individual hydrogen frequencies is even more informative.
Figures 9-10 show a different picture of what hydrogen looks like when the
same information
used to make energy level diagrams is plotted as actual frequencies and
intensities instead.
Specifically, the X-axis shows the frequencies emitted and absorbed by
hydrogen, while the
Y-axis shows the relative intensity for each frequency. The frequencies are
plotted in
terahertz (THz, 1012 Hz) and are rounded to the nearest THz. The intensities
are plotted on a
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relative scale of 1 to 1,000. The highest intensity frequency that hydrogen
atoms produce is
2,466 THz. This is the peak of curve I to the far right in Figure 9a. This
curve I shall be
referred to as the first curve. Curve I sweeps down and to the right, from
2,466 THz at a
relative intensity of 1,000 to 3,237 THz at a relative intensity of only about
15.
The second curve in Figure 9a, curve II, starts at 456 THz with a relative
intensity of
about 300 and sweeps down and to the right. It ends at a frequency of 781 THz
with a
relative intensity of five (5). Every curve in hydrogen has this same downward
sweep to the
right. Progressing from right to left in Figure 9, the curves are numbered I
through V; going
from high to low frequency and from high to low intensity.
The hydrogen frequency chart shown in Figure 10 appears to be much simpler
than
the energy level diagrams. It is thus easier to visualize how the frequencies
are organized
into the different curves shown in Figure 9. In fact, there is one curve for
each of the series
described by Rydberg. Curve "I" contains the frequencies in the Lyman series,
originating
from what quantum mechanics refers to as the first energy level. The second
curve from the
right, curve "II", equates to the second energy level, and so on.
The curves in the hydrogen frequency chart of Figure 9 are composed of sums
and
differences (i.e., they are heterodyned). For example, the smallest curve at
the far left,
labeled curve "V", has two frequencies shown, namely 40 THz and 64 THz, with
relative
intensities of six (6) and four (4), respectively (see also Figure 10). The
next curve, IV,
begins at 74 THz, proceeds to 114 THz and ends with 138 THz. The summed
heterodyne
calculations are thus:
40+74=114
64 + 74 + 138.
The frequencies in curve IV are the sum of the frequencies in curve V plus the
peak intensity
frequency in curve IV.
Alternatively, the frequencies in curve IV, minus the frequencies in curve V,
yield the
peak of curve IV
114-40=74
138 - 64 = 74.
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This is not just a coincidental set of sums or differences in curves IV and V.
Every curve in
hydrogen is the result of adding each frequency in any one curve, with the
highest intensity
frequency in the next curve.
These hydrogen frequencies are found in both the atom itself, and in the
electromagnetic energy it radiates. The frequencies of the atom and its
energy, add and
subtract in regular fashion. This is heterodyning. Thus, not only matter and
energy
heterodyne interchangeably, but matter heterodynes its' own energy within
itself.
Moreover, the highest intensity frequencies in each curve are heterodynes of
heterodynes. For example, the peak frequency in Curve I of Figure 9 is 2,466
THz, which is
the third harmonic of 616 THz;
4 x 616 THz = 2,466 THz.
Thus, 2,466 THz is the third harmonic of 616 THz (Recall that for heterodyned
harmonics,
the result is even multiples of the starting frequency, i.e., for the first
harmonic 2X the
original frequency and the third harmonic is 4X the original frequency.
Multiplying a
frequency by four (4) is a natural result of the heterodyning process.) Thus,
2,466 THz is a
fourth generation heterodyne, namely the third harmonic of 616 THz.
The peak of curve II of Figure 9, a frequency corresponding to 456 THz, is the
third
harmonic of 114 THz in curve IV. The peak of curve III, corresponding to a
frequency of
160 THz, is the third harmonic of 40 THz in curve V. The peaks of the curves
shown in
Figure 9 are not only heterodynes between the curves but are also harmonics of
individual
frequencies which are themselves heterodynes. The whole hydrogen spectrum
turns out to be
an incestuously heterodyned set of frequencies and harmonics.
Theoretically, this heterodyne process could go on forever. For example, if 40
is the
peak of a curve, that means the peak is four (4) times a lower number, and it
also means that
the peak of the previous curve is 24 (64-40 = 24). It is possible to
mathematically extrapolate
backwards and downwards this way to derive lower and lower frequencies. Peaks
of
successive curves to the left are 24.2382, 15.732, and 10.786 THz, all
generated from the
heterodyne process. These frequencies are in complete agreement with the
Rydberg formula
for energy levels 6, 7 and 8, respectively. Not much attention has
historically been given by
the.prior art to these lower frequencies and their heterodyning.
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This invention teaches that the heterodyned frequency curves amplify the
vibrations
and energy of hydrogen. A low intensity frequency on curve IV or V has a very
high
intensity by the time it is heterodyned out to curve I. In many respects, the
hydrogen atom is
just one big energy amplification system. Moving from low frequencies to high
frequencies,
(i.e., from curve V to curve I in Figure 9), the intensities increase
dramatically. By
stimulating hydrogen with 2,466 THz at an intensity of 1,000, the result will
be 2,466 THz at
1,000 intensity. However, if hydrogen is stimulated with 40 THz at an
intensity of 1,000, by
the time it is amplified back out to curve I of Figure 9, the result will be
2,466 THz at an
intensity of 167,000. This heterodyning turns out to have a direct bearing on
platinum, and
on how platinum interacts with hydrogen. It all has to do with hydrogen being
an energy
amplification system. That is why the lower frequency curves are perceived as
being higher
energy levels. By understanding this process, the low frequencies of low
intensity suddenly
become potentially very significant.
Platinum resonates with most, if not all, of the hydrogen frequencies with one
notable
exception, the highest intensity curve at the far right in the frequency chart
of Figure 9 (i.e.,
curve I) representing energy level 1, and beginning with 2,466 THz. Platinum
does not
appear to resonate significantly with the ground state transition of the
hydrogen atom.
However, it does resonate with multiple upper energy levels of lower
frequencies.
With this information, one ongoing mystery can be solved. Ever since lasers
were
developed, the prior art chemists believed that there had to be some way to
catalyze a
reaction using lasers. Standard approaches involved using the single highest
intensity
frequency of an atom (such as 2,466 THz of hydrogen) because it was apparently
believed
that the highest intensity frequency would result in the highest reactivity.
This approach was
taken due to considering only the energy level diagrams. Accordingly, prior
art lasers are
typically tuned to a ground state transition frequency. This use of lasers in
the prior art has
been minimally successful for catalyzing chemical reactions. It is now
understood why this
approach was not successful. Platinum, the quintessential hydrogen catalyst,
does not
resonate with the ground state transition of hydrogen. It resonates with the
upper energy
level frequencies, in fact, many of the upper level frequencies. Without
wishing to be bound
by any particular theory or explanation, this is probably why platinum is such
a good
hydrogen catalyst.
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Einstein essentially worked out the statistics on lasers at the turn of the
century when
atoms at the ground energy level (E1) are resonated to an excited energy level
(E2). Refer to
the number of atoms in the ground state as "N," and the number of excited
atoms as "N2",
with the total "N~°tei". Since there are only two possible states that
atoms can occupy:
Nt°ta~ = N~ + N2.
After all the mathematics are performed, the relationship which evolves is:
N2 NZ 1
_____ _ _____ < _____
Nt°tai Nl + Nz 2
In a two level system, it is predicted that there will never by more than SO%
of the atoms in
the higher energy level, E2, at the same time.
If, however, the same group of atoms is energized at three (3) or more energy
levels
(i.e., a multi-level system), it is possible to obtain more than 50% of the
atoms energized
above the first level. By referring to the ground and energized levels as E1,
E2, and E3,
respectively, and the numbers of atoms as Ntot~, Nu N2, and N3, under certain
circumstances,
the number of atoms at an elevated energy level (N3) can be more than the
number at a lower
energy level (Nz). When this happens, it is referred to as a "population
inversion".
Population inversion means that more of the atoms are at higher energy levels
that at the
lower energy levels.
Population inversion in lasers is important. Population inversion causes
amplification
of light energy. For example, in a two-level system, one photon in results in
one photon out.
In a system with three (3) or more energy levels and population inversion, one
photon in may
result in 5, 10, or 15 photons out (see Figure 11 ). The amount of photons out
depends on the
number of levels and just how energized each level becomes. All lasers are
based on this
simple concept of producing a population inversion in a group of atoms, by
creating a multi-
level energized system among the atoms. Lasers are simply devices to amplify
electromagnetic wave energy (i.e., light) Laser is actually an abbreviation
for Light
Amplification System for Emitting Radiation.
By referring back to the interactions discussed herein between platinum and
hydrogen, platinum energizes 19 upper level frequencies in hydrogen (i.e., 80%
of the total
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hydrogen frequencies). But only three frequencies are needed for a population
inversion.
Hydrogen is stimulated at 19. This is a clearly multi-level system. Moreover,
consider that
seventy platinum frequencies do the stimulating. On average, every hydrogen
frequency
involved is stimulated by three or four (i.e., 70/19) different platinum
frequencies; both
directly resonant frequencies and/or indirectly resonant harmonic frequencies.
Platinum
provides ample stimulus, atom per atom, to produce a population inversion in
hydrogen.
Finally, consider the fact that every time a stimulated hydrogen atom emits
some
electromagnetic energy, that energy is of a frequency that matches and
stimulates platinum in
return.
Platinum and hydrogen both resonate with each other in their respective multi-
level
systems. Together, platinum and hydrogen form an atomic scale laser (i.e., an
energy
amplification system on the atomic level). In so doing, platinum and hydrogen
amplify the
energies that are needed to stabilize both the hydrogen and hydroxy
intermediates, thus
catalyzing the reaction pathway for the formation of water. Platinum is such a
good
hydrogen catalyst because it forms a lasing system with hydrogen on the atomic
level,
thereby amplifying their respective energies.
Further, this reaction hints that in order to catalyze a reaction system
and/or control
the reaction pathway in a reaction system it is possible for only a single
transient and/or
intermediate to be formed and/or energized by an applied frequency (e.g., a
spectral catalyst)
and that by forming and/or stimulating at least one transient and/or at least
one intermediate
that is required to follow for a desired reaction pathway (e.g., either a
complex reaction or a
simple reaction), then a frequency, or combination of frequencies, which
result in such
formation or stimulation of only one of such required transients and/or
intermediates may be
all that is required. Accordingly, the present invention recognizes that in
some reaction
systems, by determining at least one required transient and/or intermediate,
and by applying
at least one frequency which generates, energizes and/or stabilizes said at
least one transient
and/or intermediate, then all other transients and/or intermediates required
for a reaction to
proceed down a desired reaction pathway may be self generated. However, in
some cases,
the reaction could be increased in rate by applying the appropriate frequency
or spectral
energy pattern, which directly stimulates all transients and/or intermediates
that are required
in order for a reaction to proceed down a desired reaction pathway.
Accordingly, depending
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upon the particulars of any reaction system, it may be desirable for a variety
of reasons,
including equipment, environmental reaction conditions, etc., to provide or
apply a
frequency or spectral energy pattern which results in the formation andJor
stimulation andlor
stabilization of any required transients and/or intermediates. Thus, in order
to determine an
S appropriate frequency or spectral energy pattern, it is first desirable to
determine which
transients and/or intermediates are present in any reaction pathway.
Specifically, once all known required transients and/or intermediates are
determined,
then, one can determine experimentally or empirically which transients and/or
intermediates
are essential to a reaction pathway and then determine, which transients and
or intermediates
can be self generated by the stimulation and/or formation of a different
transient or
intermediate. Once such determinations are made, appropriate spectral energies
(e.g.,
electromagnetic frequencies) can then be applied to the reaction system to
obtain the
desirable reaction product and/or desirable reaction pathway.
It is known that an atom of platinum interacts with an atom of hydrogen and/or
a
hydroxy intermediate. And, that is exactly what modern chemistry has taught
for the last one
hundred years, based on Ostwald's theory of catalysis. However, the prior art
teaches that
catalysts must participate in the reaction by binding to the reactants, in
other words, the prior
art teaches a matter: matter bonding interaction is required for physical
catalysts. As
previously stated, these reactions follow these steps:
1. Reactant diffusion to the catalyst site;-
2. Bonding of reactant to the catalyst site;
3. Reaction of the catalyst-reactant complex;
4. Bond rupture at the catalytic site (product); and
5. Diffusion of the product away from the catalyst site.
However, according to the present invention, for example, energy:energy
frequencies
can interact as well as energy: matter frequencies. Moreover, matter radiates
energy, with the
energy frequencies being substantially the same as the matter frequencies. So
platinum
vibrates at the frequency of 1,060 THz, and it also radiates electromagnetic
energy at 1,060
THz. Thus, according to the present invention, the distinction between energy
frequencies
and matter frequencies starts to look less important.
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Resonance can be produced in, for example, the reaction intermediates by
permitting
them to come into contact with additional matter vibrating at substantially
the same
frequencies, such as those frequencies of a' platinum atom (e.g., platinum
stimulating the
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water). Alternatively, according
to the
present invention, resonance can be produced in the intermediates by
introducing
electromagnetic energy corresponding to one or more platinum energies, which
also vibrate
at the same frequencies, thus at least partially mimicking (an additional
mechanism of
platinum is resonance with the H2 molecule, a pathway reactant) the mechanism
of action of a
platinum catalyst. Matter, or energy, it makes no difference as far as the
frequencies are
concerned, because when the frequencies match, energy transfers. Thus,
physical catalysts
are not required. Rather, the application of at least a portion of the
spectral pattern of a
physical catalyst may be sufficient (i.e. at least a portion of the catalytic
spectral pattern).
However, in another preferred embodiment, substantially all of a spectral
pattern can be
applied.
Still further, by understanding the catalyst mechanism of action, particular
frequencies
can be applied to, for example, one or more reactants in a reaction system
and, for example,
cause the applied frequencies to heterodyne with existing frequencies in the
matter itself to
result in frequencies which correspond to one or more platinum catalyst or
other relevant
spectral frequencies. For example, both the hydrogen atom and the hydrogen
molecule have
unique frequencies. By heterodyning the frequencies a subtractive frequency
can be
determined:
NOF g atom - NOF g molecule = Difference H atom-molecule
The Difference H atom-molecule frequency applied to the H2 molecule reactant
will heterodyne
with the molecule and energize the individual hydrogen atoms as intermediates.
Similarly,
any reaction participant can serve as the heterodyning backboard for
stimulation of another
participant. For example,
Difference H atom - Oxygen molecule '* NOF oxygen molecule = NOF g atom
or
Difference oH-Water + NOF Water ° NOFoH
This approach enables greater flexibility for choice of appropriate equipment
to apply
appropriate frequencies. However, the key to this approach is understanding
catalyst
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mechanisms of action and the reaction pathway so that appropriate choices for
application of
frequencies can be made.
Specifically, whenever reference is made to, for example, a spectral catalyst
duplicating at least a portion of a physical catalyst's spectral pattern, this
reference is to all
the different frequencies produced by a physical catalyst; including, but not
necessarily
limited to, electronic, vibrational, rotational, and NOF frequencies. To
catalyze, control,
and/or direct a chemical reaction then, all that is needed is to duplicate one
or more
frequencies from a physical catalyst, with, for example, an appropriate
electromagnetic
energy. The actual physical presence of the catalyst is not necessary. A
spectral catalyst can
substantially completely replace a physical catalyst, if desired.
A spectral catalyst can also augment or promote the activity of a physical
catalyst.
The exchange of energy at particular frequencies, between hydrogen, hydroxy,
and platinum
is primarily what drives the conversion to water. These participants interact
and create a
miniature atomic scale lasing system that amplify their respective energies.
The addition of
these same energies to a reaction system, using a spectral catalyst, does the
same thing. The
spectral catalyst amplifies the participant energies by resonating with them
and when
frequencies match, energy transfers and the chemicals (matter) can absorb the
energy. Thus, a
spectral catalyst can augment a physical catalyst, as well as replace it. In
so doing, the
spectral catalyst may increase the reaction rate, enhance specificity, and/or
allow for the use
of less physical catalyst.
Figure 12 shows a basic bell-shaped curve produced by comparing how much
energy
an object absorbs, as compared to the frequency of the energy. This curve is
called a
resonance curve. As elsewhere herein stated, the energy transfer between, for
example,
atoms or molecules, reaches a maximum at the resonant frequency (f°).
The farther away an
applied frequency is from the resonant frequency, f°, the lower the
energy transfer (e.g.,
matter to matter, energy to matter, etc.). At some point the energy transfer
will fall to a value
representing only about 50% of that at the resonant frequency f°. The
frequency higher than
the resonant frequency, at which energy transfer is only about 50% is called
"f2." The
frequency lower than the resonant frequency, at which about 50% energy
transfer occurs, is
labeled "f,."
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The resonant characteristics of different objects can be compared using the
information from the simple exemplary resonance curve shown in Figure 12. One
such
useful characteristic is called the "resonance quality" or "Q" factor. To
determine the
resonance quality for an object the following equation is utilized:
fo
Q°
(f2 - fi)
Accordingly, as shown from the equation, if the bell-shaped resonance curve is
tall and
narrow, then (f2 - fl) will be a very small number and Q, the resonance
quality, will be high
(see Figure 13a). An example of a material with a high "Q" is a high quality
quartz crystal
resonator. If the resonance curve is low and broad, then the spread or
difference between f2
and fl will be relatively large. An example of a material with a low "Q" is a
marshmallow.
The dividing of the resonant frequency by this large number will produce a
much lower Q
value (see Figure 13b).
Atoms and molecules, for example, have resonance curves which exhibit
properties
similar to larger objects such as quartz crystals and marshmallows. If the
goal is to stimulate
atoms in a reaction (e.g., hydrogen in the reaction to produce water as
mentioned previously)
a precise resonant frequency produced by a reaction system component or
environmental
reaction condition (e.g., hydrogen) can be used. It is not necessary to use
the precise
frequency, however. Use of a frequency that is near a resonant frequency of,
for example,
one or more reaction system components or environmental reaction conditions is
adequate.
There will not be quite as much of an effect as using the exact resonant
frequency, because
less energy will be transferred, but there will still be an effect. The closer
the applied
frequency is to the resonant frequency, the more the effect. The farther away
the applied
frequency is from the resonant frequency, the less effect that is present
(i.e., the less energy
transfer that occurs).
Harmonics present a similar situation. As previously stated, harmonics are
created by
the heterodyning (i.e., adding and subtracting) of frequencies, allowing the
transfer of
significant amounts of energy. Accordingly, for example, desirable results can
be achieved in
chemical reactions if applied frequencies (e.g., at least a portion of a
spectral catalyst) are
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harmonics (i.e., matching heterodynes) with one or more resonant
frequency(ies) of one or
more reaction system components or environmental reaction conditions.
Further, similar to applied frequencies being close to resonant frequencies,
applied
frequencies which are close to the harmonic frequency can also produce
desirable results.
The amplitude of the energy transfer will be less relative to a harmonic
frequency, but an
effect will still occur. For example, if the harmonic produces 70% of the
amplitude of the
fundamental resonant frequency and by using a frequency which is merely close
to the
harmonic, for example, about 90% on the harmonic's resonance curve, then the
total effect
will be 90% of 70%, or about 63% total energy transfer in comparison to a
direct resonant
frequency. Accordingly, according to the present invention, when at least a
portion of the
frequencies of one or more reaction system components or environmental
reaction conditions
at least partially match, then at least some energy will transfer and at least
some reaction will
occur (i.e., when frequencies match, energy transfers).
DUPLICATING THE CATALYST MECHANICS OF ACTION
As stated previously, to catalyze, control, and/or direct a chemical reaction,
a spectral
catalyst can be applied. The spectral catalyst may correspond to at least a
portion of a
spectral pattern of a physical catalyst or the spectral catalyst may
correspond to frequencies
which form or stimulate required participants (e.g., heterodyned frequencies)
or the spectral
catalyst may substantially duplicate environmental reaction conditions such as
temperature or
pressure. Thus, as now taught by the present invention, the actual physical
presence of a
catalyst is not required to achieve the desirable chemical reactions. The
removal of a
physical catalyst is accomplished by understanding the underlying mechanism
inherent in
catalysis, namely that desirable energy can be exchanged (i.e., transferred)
between, for
example, (1) at least one participant (e.g., reactant, transient,
intermediate, activated complex,
reaction product, promoter and/or poison) and/or at least one component in a
reaction system
and (2) an applied electromagnetic energy (e.g., spectral catalyst) when such
energy is
present at one or more specific frequencies. In other words, the targeted
mechanism that
nature has built into the catalytic process can be copied according to the
teachings of the
present invention. Nature can be further mimicked because the catalyst process
reveals
several opportunities for duplicating catalyst mechanisms of action, and hence
improving the
use of spectral catalysts, as well as the control of countless chemical
reactions.
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For example, the previously discussed reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to
produce
water, which used platinum as a catalyst, is a good starting point for
understanding catalyst
mechanisms of action. For example, this invention discloses that platinum
catalyzes the
reaction in several ways not contemplated by the prior art:
Platinum directly resonates with and energizes reaction intermediates and/or
transients (e.g., atomic hydrogen and hydroxy radicals);
Platinum harmonically resonates with and energizes at least one reaction
intermediate and or transient(e.g., atomic hydrogen); and
Platinum energizes multiple upper energy levels of at least one reaction
intermediate
and or transient (e.g., atomic hydrogen).
This knowledge can be utilized to improve the functioning of the spectral
catalyst
and/or spectral energy catalyst to design spectral catalysts and spectral
energy catalysts which
differ from actual catalytic spectral patterns, and to design physical
catalysts, and to optimize
environmental reaction conditions. For example, the frequencies of atomic
platinum are in
the ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The
electronic spectra of virtually all atoms are in these same regions. However,
these very high
electromagnetic frequencies can be a problem for large-scale and industrial
applications
because wave energies having high frequencies typically do not penetrate
matter very well
(i.e., do not penetrate far into matter). The tendency of wave energy to be
absorbed rather
than transmitted, can be referred to as attenuation. High frequency wave
energies have a
high attenuation, and thus do not penetrate far into a typical industrial
scale reaction vessel
containing typical reactants for a chemical reaction. Thus, the duplication
and application of
at least a portion of the spectral pattern of platinum into a commercial scale
reaction vessel
will typically be a slow process because a large portion of the applied
spectral pattern of the
spectral catalysts may be rapidly absorbed near the edges of the reaction
vessel.
Thus, in order to input energy into a large industrial-sized commercial
reaction vessel,
a lower frequency energy could be used that would penetrate farther into the
reactants housed
within the reaction vessel. The present invention teaches that this can be
accomplished in a
unique manner by copying nature. As discussed herein, the spectra of atoms and
molecules
are broadly classified into three (3) different groups: electronic,
vibrational, and rotational.
The electronic spectra of atoms and small molecules are said to result from
transitions of
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electrons from one energy level to another, and have the corresponding highest
frequencies,
typically occurring in the ultraviolet (UV),, visible, and infrared (IR)
regions of the EM
spectrum. The vibrational spectra are said to result primarily from this
movement of bonds
between individual atoms within molecules, and typically occur in the infrared
and
microwave regions. Rotational spectra occur primarily in the microwave and
radiowave
regions of the EM spectrum due, primarily, to the rotation of the molecules.
Microwave or radiowave radiation could be an acceptable frequency to be used
as a
spectral catalyst because it would penetrate well into a large reaction
vessel. Unfortunately,
platinum atoms do not produce frequencies in the microwave or radiowave
portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum because they do not have vibrational or rotational
spectra.
However, by copying the mechanism of action platinum, selected platinum
frequencies can
be used as a model for a spectral catalyst in the microwave portion of the
spectrum.
Specifically, as previously discussed, one mechanism of action of platinum in
the reaction
system to produce water involves energizing at least one reaction intermediate
and/or
transient. Reaction intermediates in this reaction are atomic hydrogen and the
hydroxy
radical. Atomic hydrogen has a high frequency electronic spectrum without
vibrational or
rotational spectra. The hydroxy radical, on the other hand, is a molecule, and
has vibrational
and rotational spectra as well as an electronic spectrum. Thus, the hydroxy
radical emits,
absorbs and heterodynes frequencies in the microwave portion of the
electromagnetic
spectrum.
Thus, to copy the mechanism of action of platinum in the reaction to form
water,
namely resonating with at least one reaction intermediate and/or transient,
the hydroxy
intermediate can be specifically targeted via resonance. However, instead of
resonating with
the hydroxy radical in its electronic spectrum, as physical platinum catalyst
does, at least one
hydroxy frequency in the microwave portion of the EM spectrum can be used to
resonate
with the hydroxy radical. Hydroxy radicals heterodyne at a microwave frequency
of about
21.4 GHz. Energizing a reaction system of hydrogen and oxygen gas with a
spectral
catalyst at about 21.4 GHz will catalyze the formation of water. In this
instance, the
mechanism of action of the physical catalyst platinum has been partially
copied and the
mechanism has been shifted to a different region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
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The second method discussed above for platinum catalyzing a reaction, involves
harmonically energizing at least one reaction intermediate in the reaction
system. For
example, assume that one or more lasers was available to catalyze the hydrogen-
oxygen
reaction to form water, however, the frequency range of such lasers was only
from, for
example, 1,500 to 2,000 THz. Platinum does not produce frequencies in that
portion of the
EM spectrum. Moreover, the two hydroxy frequencies that platinum resonates
with, 975 and
1,060 THz, are outside the frequency range that the lasers, in this example,
can generate.
Likewise, the hydrogen spectrum does not have any frequencies between 1,500
and 2,000
THz (see Figures 9-10).
However, according to the present invention, by again copying the mechanism of
action of platinum, frequencies can be adapted or selected to be convenient
and/or efficient
for the equipment available. Specifically, harmonic frequencies corresponding
to the reaction
intermediates and/or transients, and also corresponding to frequencies capable
of being
generated by the lasers of this example, can be utilized. For the hydroxy
radical, having a
1 S resonant frequency of 975 THz, the first harmonic is 1,950 THz. Thus, a
laser of this
example could be tuned to 1,950 THz to resonate harmonically with the hydroxy
intermediate. The first harmonics of three different hydrogen frequencies also
fall within the
operational range of the lasers of this example. The fundamental frequencies
are 755, 770
and 781 THz and the first harmonics are 1,510, 1,540, and 1,562 THz,
respectively. Thus, a
laser of this example could be tuned to the first harmonics 1,510, 1,540, and
1,562 THz in
order to achieve a heterodyned matching of frequencies between electromagnetic
energy and
matter and thus achieve a transfer and absorption of said energy.
Thus, depending on how many lasers are available and the frequencies to which
the
lasers can be tuned, third or fourth harmonics could also be utilized. The
third harmonic of
the hydrogen frequency, 456 THz, occurs at 1,824 THz, which is also within the
operating
range of the lasers of this example. Similarly, the fourth harmonic of the
hydrogen
frequency, 314 THz, occurs at 1,570 THz, which again falls within the
operating range of the
lasers of this example. In summary, a mechanism of action of a physical
catalyst can be
copied, duplicated or mimicked while moving the relevant spectral catalyst
frequencies, to a
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that matches equipment available for
the reaction
system and the application of electromagnetic energy.
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The third method discussed above for platinum catalyzing this reaction
involves
energizing at least one reaction intermediate and/or transient at multiple
upper energy levels
and setting up, for example, an atomic scale laser system. Again, assume that
the same lasers
discussed above are the only electromagnetic energy sources available and
assume that there
S are a total of ten (10) lasers available. There are four (4) first harmonics
available for
targeting within the operating frequency range of 1,500 to 2,000 THz. Some
portion of the
lasers should be adjusted to four (4) first harmonics and some should be
adjusted to the third,
fourth, and higher harmonics. Specifically, the present invention has
discovered that a
mechanism of action that physical platinum uses is to resonate with multiple
upper energy
levels of at least one reaction participant. It is now understood that the
more upper energy
levels that are involved, the better. This creates an atomic scale laser
system with
amplification of the electromagnetic energies being exchanged between the
atoms of
platinum and hydrogen. This amplification of energy catalyzes the reaction at
a much faster
rate than the reaction would ordinarily proceed. This mechanism of action can
also be
exploited to catalyze, for example, the reaction with the available lasers
discussed above.
For example, rather than setting all ten (10) lasers to the four (4) first
harmonics and
energizing only four (4) levels, it should now be understood that it would be
desirable to
energize as many different energy levels as possible. This task can be
accomplished by
setting each of the ten (10) lasers to a different frequency. Even though the
physical catalyst
platinum is not present, the energizing of multiple upper energy levels in the
hydrogen will
amplify the energies being exchanged between the atoms, and the reaction
system will form
its' own laser system between the hydrogen atoms. This will permit the
reaction to proceed
at a much faster rate than it ordinarily would. Once again, nature can be
mimicked by
duplicating one of her mechanisms of action by specifically targeting multiple
energy levels
with a spectral catalyst to achieve energy transfer in a novel manner.
The preceding discussion on duplicating catalyst mechanisms of action is just
the
beginning of an understanding of many variables associated with the use of
spectral catalysts.
These additional variables should be viewed as potentially very useful tools
for enhancing the
performance of spectral energy, and/or physical catalysts. There are many
factors and
variables that affect both catalyst performance, and chemical reactions in
general. For
example, when the same catalyst is mixed with the same reactant, but exposed
to different
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environmental reaction conditions such as temperature or pressure, different
products can be
produced. Consider the following example:
300° C
1. Cyclohexene ~~-->-->-->->--» Benzene + 2H2
Pd catalyst
<300°C
2. Cyclohexene ~-~~--»->--->-~ Benzene + 2Cyclohexane
Pd catalyst
The same catalyst with the same reactant, produces quite different products in
these two
reactions, namely molecular hydrogen or cyclohexane, depending on the reaction
temperature.
Many factors are known in the art which affect the direction and intensity
with which
a physical catalyst guides a reaction or with which a reaction proceeds in
general.
Temperature is but one of these factors. Other factors include pressure,
volume, surface area
of physical catalysts, solvents, support materials, contaminants, catalyst
size and shape and
composition , reactor vessel size, shape and composition, electric fields,
magnetic fields, and
acoustic fields. The present invention teaches that these factors all have one
thing in
common. These factors are capable of changing the spectral patterns (i.e.,
frequency pattern)
of, for example, participants and/or reaction system components. Some changes
in spectra
are very well studied and thus much information is available for consideration
and
application thereof. The prior art does not contemplate, however, the spectral
chemistry basis
for each of these factors , and how they relate to catalyst mechanisms of
action, and chemical
reactions in general. Further, alternatively, effects of the aforementioned
factors can be
enhanced or diminished by the application of additional spectral, spectral
energy, and/or
physical catalyst frequencies. Moreover, these environmental reaction
conditions can be at
least partially simulated in a reaction system by the application of one or
more corresponding
spectral environmental reaction conditions (e.g., a spectral energy pattern
which duplicates at
least a portion of one or more environmental reaction conditions).
Alternatively, one spectral
environmental reaction condition (e.g., a spectral energy pattern
corresponding to
temperature) could be substituted for another (e.g., spectral energy pattern
corresponding to
pressure) so long as the goal of matching of frequencies was met.
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TEMPERATURE
At very low temperatures, the spectral pattern of an atom or molecule has
clean, crisp
peaks (see Figure 15a). As the temperature increases, the peaks begin to
broaden, producing
a bell-shaped curve of a spectral pattern (see Figure 15b). At even higher
temperatures, the
S bell-shaped curve broadens even more, to include more and more frequencies
on either side
of the primary frequency (see Figure 15c)., This phenomenon is called
"broadening".
These spectral curves are very much like the resonance curves discussed in the
previous section. Spectroscopists use resonance curve terminology to describe
spectral
frequency curves for atoms and molecules (see Figure 16). The frequency at the
top of the
curve, f°, is called the resonance frequency. There is a frequency (f2)
above the resonance
frequency and another (fl) below it (i.e., in frequency), at which the energy
or intensity (i.e.,
amplitude) is 50% of that for the resonance frequency f°. The quantity
fz - fl is a measure of
how wide or narrow the spectral frequency curve is. This quantity (f2 - f1) is
the "line
width". A spectrum with narrow curves has a small line width, while a spectrum
with wide
curves has a large line width.
Temperature affects the line width of spectral curves. Line width can affect
catalyst
performance, chemical reactions andlor reaction pathways At low temperatures,
the spectral
curves of chemical species will be separate and distinct, with a lesser
possibility for the
transfer of resonant energy between potential reaction system components (see
Figure 17a).
However, as the line widths of potentially reactive chemical species broaden,
their spectral
curves may start to overlap with spectral curves of other chemical species
(see Figure 17b).
When frequencies match, or spectral energy patterns overlap, energy transfers.
Thus, when
temperatures are low, frequencies do not match and reactions are slow. At
higher
temperatures, resonant transfer of energy can take place and reactions can
proceed very
quickly or proceed along a different reaction pathway than they otherwise
would have at a
lower temperature.
Besides affecting the line width of the spectral curves, temperature also can
change,
for example, the resonant frequency of reaction system components. For some
chemical
species, the resonant frequency will shift as temperature changes. This can be
seen in the
infrared absorption spectra in Figure 18a and blackbody radiation graphs shown
in Figure
18b. Further, atoms and molecules do not all shift their resonant frequencies
by the same
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amount or in the same direction, when they are at the same temperature. This
can also affect
catalyst performance. For example, if a catalyst resonant frequency shifts
more with
increased temperature than the resonant frequency of its targeted chemical
species, then the
catalyst could end up matching the frequency of a chemical species, and
resonance may be
created where none previously existed (see Figure 18c). Specifically, Figure
18c shows
catalyst "C" at low temperature and "C*" at high temperature. The catalyst
"C*" resonates
with reactant "A" at high temperatures, but not at low temperatures.
The amplitude or intensity of a spectral line may be affected by temperature
also. For
example, linear and symmetric rotor molecules will have an increase in
intensity as the
temperature is lowered while other molecules will increase intensity as the
temperature is
raised. These changes of spectral intensity can also affect catalyst
performance. Consider the
example where a low intensity spectral curve of a catalyst is resonant with
one or more
frequencies of a specific chemical target. Only small amounts of energy can be
transferred
from the catalyst to the target chemical (e.g., a hydroxy intermediate). As
temperature
increases, the amplitude of the catalyst's curve increases also. In this
example, the catalyst
can transfer much larger amounts of energy to the chemical target when the
temperature is
raised.
If the chemical target is the intermediate chemical species for an alternative
reaction
route, the type and ratio of end products may be affected. By examining the
above
cyclohexene/palladium reaction again, at temperatures below 300°C, the
products are
benzene and hydrogen gas. However, when the temperature is above 300°C,
the products are
benzene and cyclohexane. Temperature is affecting the palladium and/or other
constituents
in the reaction system (including, for example, reactants, intermediates,
and/or products) in
such a way that an alternative reaction pathway leading to the formation of
cyclohexane is
favored above 300°C. This could be a result of, for example, increased
line width, altered
resonance frequencies, or changes in spectral curve intensities for any of the
components in
the reaction system.
It is important to consider not only the spectral catalyst frequencies one may
wish to
use to catalyze a reaction, but also the reaction conditions under which those
frequencies are
supposed to work. For example, in the palladium/cyclohexene reaction at low
temperatures,
the palladium may match frequencies with an intermediate for the formation of
hydrogen
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molecules (HZ). At temperatures above 300°C the reactants and
transients may be unaffected,
but the palladium may have an increased line width, altered resonant frequency
and/or
increased intensity. The changes in the line width, resonant frequency andlor
intensity may
cause the palladium to match frequencies and transfer energy to an
intermediate in the
formation of cyclohexane instead. If a spectral catalyst was to be used to
assist in the
formation of cyclohexane at room temperature, the frequency for the
cyclohexane
intermediate would be more effective if used, rather than the spectral
catalyst frequency used
at room temperature.
Thus, it may be important to understand the reaction system dynamics in
designing
and selecting an appropriate spectral catalyst. The transfer of energy between
different
reaction system components will vary, depending on temperature. Once
understood, this
allows one to knowingly adjust temperature to optimize a reaction, reaction
product,
interaction and/or formation of reaction product at a desirable reaction rate,
without the trial
and error approaches of prior art. Further, it allows one to choose catalysts
such as physical
catalysts, spectral catalysts, and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize a
desired reaction
pathway. This understanding of the spectral impact of temperature allows one
to perform
customarily high temperature (and, sometimes high danger) chemical processes
at safer,
room temperatures. It also allows one to design physical catalysts which work
at much
broader temperature ranges (e.g., frigid arctic temperatures or hot furnace
temperatures), as
desired.
PRESSURE
Pressure and temperature are directly related to each other. Specifically,
from the
ideal gas law, we know that
PV = nRT
where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the
gas constant, and
T is the absolute temperature. Thus, at equilibrium, an increase in
temperature will result in a
corresponding increase in pressure. Pressure also has an effect on spectral
patterns.
Specifically, increases in pressure can cause broadening and changes in
spectral curves, just
as increases in temperature do (see Figure 19 which shows the pressure
broadening effects on
the NH3 3.3 absorption line).
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Mathematical treatments of pressure broadening are generally grouped into
either
collision or statistical theories. In collision theories, the assumption is
made that most of the
time an atom or molecule is so far from other atoms or molecules that their
energy fields do
not interact. Occasionally, however, the atoms or molecules come so close
together that they
collide. In this case, the atom or molecule may undergo a change in wave phase
(spectral)
function, or may change to a different energy level. Collision theories treat
the matter's
emitted energy as occurring only when the. atom or molecule is far from
others, and is not
involved in a collision. Because collision theories ignore spectral
frequencies during
collisions, collision theories fail to predict accurately chemical behavior at
more than a few
atmospheres of pressure, when collisions are frequent.
Statistical theories, however, consider spectral frequencies before, during
and after
collisions. They are based on calculating the probabilities that various atoms
and/or
molecules are interacting with, or perturbed by other atoms or molecules. The
drawback with
statistical treatments of pressure effects is that the statistical treatments
do not do a good job
of accounting for the effects of molecular motion. In any event, neither
collision nor
statistical theories adequately predict the rich interplay of frequencies and
heterodynes that
take place as pressure is increased. Experimental work has demonstrated that
increased
pressure can have effects similar to those produced by increased temperature,
by:
1 ) broadening of the spectral curve, producing increased line width; and
2) shifting of the resonant frequency (fo).
Pressure effects different from those produced by temperatures are: ( 1 )
pressure
changes typically do not affect intensity, (see Figure 20 which shows a
theoretical set of
curves exhibiting an unchanged intensity for three applied different
pressures) as with
temperature changes; and (2) the curves produced by pressure broadening are
often less
symmetric than the temperature-affected curves. Consider the shape of the
three theoretical
curves shown in Figure 20. As the pressure increases, the curves become less
symmetrical.
A tail extending into the higher frequencies develops. This upper frequency
extension is
confirmed by the experimental work shown in Figure 21. Specifically, Figure 21
a shows a
pattern for the absorption by water vapor in air ( 1 Og of H20 per cubic
meter); and Figure 21 b
shows the absorption in NH3 at 1 atmosphere pressure.
Pressure broadening effects on spectral curves are broadly grouped into two
types:
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resonance or "Holtsmark" broadening, and "Lorentz" broadening. Holtsmark
broadening is
secondary to collisions between atoms of the same element, and thus the
collisions are
considered to be symmetrical. Lorentz broadening results from collisions
between atoms or
molecules which are different. The collisions are asymmetric, and the resonant
frequency, fo,
is often shifted to a lower frequency. This shift in resonant frequency is
shown in Figure 20.
The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes in
pressure can
affect catalysts, both physical and spectral, and chemical reactions and/or
reaction pathways.
At low pressures, the spectral curves tend to be fairly narrow and crisp, and
nearly
symmetrical about the resonant frequency. However, as pressures increase, the
curves may
broaden, shift, and develop high frequency tails.
At low pressures the spectral frequencies in the reaction system might be so
different
for the various atoms and molecules that there may be little or no resonant
effect, and thus
little or no energy transfer. At higher pressures, however, the combination of
broadening,
shifting and extension into higher frequencies can produce overlapping between
the spectral
curves, resulting in the creation of resonance, where none previously existed,
and thus, the
transfer of energy. The reaction system may proceed down one reaction pathway
or another,
depending on the changes in spectral curves produced by various pressure
changes. One
reaction pathway may be resonant and proceed at moderate pressure, while
another reaction
pathway may be resonant and predominate at higher pressures. As with
temperature, it is
important to consider the reaction system frequencies and mechanisms of action
of various
catalysts under the environmental reaction conditions one wishes to duplicate.
Specifically,
in order for an efficient transfer of energy to occur between, for example, a
spectral catalyst
and at least one reactant in a reaction system, there must be at least some
overlap in
frequencies.
For example, a reaction with a physical catalyst at 400 THz and a key
transient at 500
THz may proceed slowly at atmospheric pressure. Where the frequency pressure
is raised to
about five (5) atmospheres, the catalyst broadens out through the 500 THz, for
example, of
the transient. This allows the transfer of energy between the catalyst and
transient by, for
example, energizing and stimulating the transient. The reaction then proceeds
very quickly.
Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation, it
appears that, the
speed of the reaction has much less to do with the number of collisions (as
taught by the prior
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art) than it has to do with the spectral patterns of the reaction system
components. In the
above example, the reaction could be energized at low pressures by applying
the 500 THz
frequency to directly stimulate the key transient. This could also be
accompanied indirectly
using various heterodynes, (e.g., @ 1,000 THz harmonic, or a 100 THz non-
harmonic
heterodyne between the catalyst and transient (500 THz X00 THz = 100 THz.).
As shown herein, the transfer of energy between different reaction system
components will vary, depending on pressure. Once understood, this allows one
to
knowingly adjust pressure to optimize a reaction, without the trial and error
approaches of
prior art. Further, it allows one to choose catalysts such as physical
catalysts, spectral
catalysts, and/or spectral energy patterns to optimize one or more desired
reaction pathways.
This understanding of the spectral impact of pressure allows one to perform
customarily high
pressure (and thus, typically, high danger) chemical processes at safer, room
pressures. It
also allows one to design physical catalysts which work over a large range of
acceptable
pressures (e.g., low pressures approaching a vacuum to several atmospheres of
pressure).
SURFACE AREA
Traditionally, the surface are of a catalyst has been considered to be
important
because the available surface area controls the number of available binding
sites.
Supposedly, the more exposed binding sites, the more catalysis. In light of
the spectral
mechanisms disclosed in the present invention, surface area may be important
for another
reason.
Many of the spectral catalyst frequencies that correspond to physical
catalysts are
electronic frequencies in the visible light and ultraviolet regions of the
spectrum. These high
frequencies have relatively poor penetrance into, for example, large reaction
vessels that
contain one or more reactants. The high frequency spectral emissions from a
catalyst such as
platinum or palladium (or the equivalent spectral catalyst) will thus not
travel very far into
such a reaction system before such spectral emissions (or spectral catalysts)
are absorbed.
Thus, for example, an atom or molecule must be fairly close to a physical
catalyst so that
their respective electronic frequencies can interact.
Thus, surface area primarily affects the probability that a particular
chemical species,
will be close enough to the physical catalyst to interact with its
electromagnetic spectra
emission(s). With small surface area, few atoms or molecules will be close
enough to
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interact. However, as surface area increases, so too does the probability that
more atoms or
molecules will be within range for reaction. Thus, rather than increasing the
available
number of binding sites, larger surface area probably increases the volume of
the reaction
system exposed to the spectral catalyst frequencies or patterns. This is
similar to the concept
of assuring adequate penetration of a spectral catalyst into a reaction system
(e.g., assuming
that there are adequate opportunities for species to interact with each
other).
An understanding of the effects of surface area on catalysts and reaction
system
components allows one to knowingly adjust surface area and other reaction
system
components to optimize a reaction, reaction pathway and/or formation of
reaction product(s),
at a desirable reaction rate, without the drawbacks of the prior art. For
instance, surface area
is currently optimized by making catalyst particles as small as possible,
thereby maximizing
the overall surface area. The small particles have a tendency to, for example,
sinter (merge or
bond together) which decreases the overall surface area and catalytic
activity. Rejuvenation
of a large surface area catalyst can be a costly and time-consuming process.
This process can
be avoided with an understanding of the herein presented invention in the
field of spectral
chemistry. For example, assume a reaction is quickly catalyzed by a 3 m2
catalyst bed (in a
transfer of energy from catalyst to a key reactant and product). After
sintering takes place,
however, the surface area is reduced to 1 m2. Thus, the transfer of energy
from the catalyst is
dramatically reduced, and the reaction slows down. The costly and time
consuming process
of rejuvenating the surface area can be avoided (or at least delayed) by
augmenting the
reaction system with one or more desirable spectral energy patterns. In
addition, because
spectral energy patterns can affect the final physical form or phase of a
material, as well as its
chemical formula, the sintering process itself may be reduced or eliminated.
CATALYST SIZE AND SHAPE
In a related line of reasoning, catalyst size and shape are classically
thought to affect
physical catalyst activity. Selectivity of reactions controlled by particle
size has historically
been used to steer catalytic pathways. As with surface area, certain particle
sizes are thought
to provide a maximum number of active binding sites and thus maximize the
reaction rate.
The relationship between size and surface area has been previously discussed.
In light of the current understanding of the spectral mechanisms underlying
the
activity of physical catalysts and reactions in general, catalyst size and
shape may be
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important for other reasons. One of those reasons is a phenomenon called "self
absorption".
When a single atom or molecule produces its' classical spectral pattern it
radiates
electromagnetic energy which travels outward from the atom or molecule into
neighboring
space. Figure 22a shows radiation from a single atom versus radiation from a
group of atoms
as shown in Figure 22b. As more and more atoms or molecules group together,
radiation
from the center of the group is absorbed by its' neighbors and may never make
it out into
space. Depending on the size and shape of the group of atoms, self absorption
can cause a
number of changes in the spectral emission pattern (see Figure 23).
Specifically, Figure 23a
shows a normal spectral curve produced by a single atom; Figure 23b shows a
resonant
frequency shift due to self absorption; Figure 23c shows a self reversal
spectral pattern
produced by self absorption in a group of atoms and Figure 23d shows a self
reversal spectral
pattern produced by self absorption in a group of atoms. These changes include
a shift in
resonant frequency and self reversal patterns.
The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes in
catalyst
1 S size and shape can affect catalysts, chemical reactions and/or reaction
pathways. For
example, atoms or molecules of a physical catalyst may produce spectral
frequencies in the
reaction system which resonate with a key transient and/or reaction product.
With larger
groups of atoms, such as in a sintered catalyst, the combination of resonant
frequency shifting
and self reversal may eliminate overlapping between the spectral curves of
chemical species,
thereby minimizing or destroying conditions of resonance.
A reaction system may proceed down one reaction pathway or another, depending
on
the changes in spectral curves produced by the particle sizes. For example, a
catalyst having
a moderate particle size may proceed down a first reaction pathway while a
larger size
catalyst may direct the reaction down another reaction pathway.
The changes in spectral curves and frequencies that accompany changes in
catalyst
size and shape are relevant for practical applications. Industrial catalysts
are manufactured in
a range of sizes and shapes, depending on the design requirements of the
process and the type
of reactor used. Catalyst activity is typically proportional to the surface
area of the catalyst
bed in the reactor. Surface area increases as the size of the catalyst
particles decreases.
Seemingly, the smaller the catalyst particles, the better for industrial
applications. This is not
always the case, however. When a very fine bed of catalyst particles is used,
high pressures
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may be required to force the reacting chemicals across or through the catalyst
bed. The
chemicals enter the catalyst bed under high pressure, and exit the bed (e.g.,
the other side) at
a lower pressure. This large difference between entry and exit pressures is
called a "pressure
drop". A compromise is often required between catalyst size, catalyst
activity, and pressure
drop across the catalyst bed.
The use of spectral catalysts according to the present invention allows for
much finer
tuning of this compromise. For example, a large catalyst size can be used so
that pressure
drops across the catalyst bed are minimized. At the same time, the high level
of catalyst
activity obtained with a smaller catalyst size can still be obtained by, for
example,
augmenting the physical catalyst with at least a portion of one or more
spectral catalyst(s).
For example, assume that a 1 Omm average particle size catalyst has 50% of the
activity of a Smm average particle size catalyst. With a Smm-diameter
catalyst, however, the
pressure drop across the reactor may be so large that the reaction cannot be
economically
performed. The compromise in historical processes has typically been to use
twice as much
of the l Omm catalyst, to obtain the same, or approximately the same, amount
of activity as
with the original amount of Smm catalyst. However, an alternative desirable
approach is to
use the original amount of I Omm physical catalyst and augment the physical
catalyst with at
least a portion of at least one spectral catalyst. Catalyst activity can be
effectively doubled
(or increased even more) by the spectral catalyst, resulting in approximately
the same degree
of activity (or perhaps even greater activity) as with the Smm catalyst. Thus,
the present
invention permits the size of the catalyst to be larger, while retaining
favorable reactor vessel
pressure conditions so that the reaction can be performed economically, using
half as much
(or less) physical catalyst as compared to traditional prior art approaches.
Another manner to approach the problem of pressure drops in physical catalyst
beds,
is to eliminate the physical catalyst completely. For example, in another
embodiment of the
invention, a fiberoptic sieve, (e.g., one with very large pores) can be used
in a flow-through
reactor vessel. If the pore size is designed to be large enough there can be
virtually no
pressure drop across the sieve, compared to a pressure drop accompanying the
use of a 5 mm
diameter or even a 10 mm diameter physical catalyst discussed above. According
to the
present invention, the spectral catalyst can be emitted through the fiberoptic
sieve, thus
catalyzing the reacting species as they flow by. This improvement over the
prior art
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approaches has significant processing implications including lower costs,
higher rates and
improved safety, to mention only a few.
Industrial catalysts are also manufactured in a range of shapes, as well as
sizes.
Shapes include spheres, irregular granules, pellets, extrudate, and rings.
Some shapes are
more expensive to manufacture than others, while some shapes have superior
properties (e.g.,
catalyst activity, strength, and less pressure drop) than others. While
spheres are inexpensive
to manufacture, a packed bed of spheres produces high pressure drops and the
spheres are
typically not very strong. Physical catalyst rings on the other hand, have
superior strength
and activity and produce very little pressure drop, but they are also
relatively expensive to
produce.
Spectral energy catalysts permit a greater flexibility in choosing catalyst
shape. For
example, instead of using a packed bed of inexpensive spheres, with the
inevitable high
pressure drop and resulting mechanical damage to the catalyst particles, a
single layer of
spheres augmented, for example, with a spectral energy catalyst can be used.
This catalyst is
inexpensive, activity is maintained, and large pressure drops are not
produced, thus
preventing mechanical damage and extending the useful life of physical
catalyst spheres.
Similarly, far smaller numbers of catalyst rings can be used while obtaining
the same or
greater catalyst activity by, for example, supplementing with at least a
portion of a spectral
catalyst. The process can proceed at a faster flow-through rate because the
catalyst bed will
be smaller relative to a bed that is not augmented with a spectral catalyst.
The use of spectral energy catalysts and/or spectral environmental reaction
conditions
to augment existing physical catalysts has the following advantages:
- permit the use of less expensive shaped catalyst particles;
- permit the use of fewer catalyst particles overall;
- permit the use of stronger shapes of catalyst particles; and
- permit the use of catalyst particle shapes with better pressure drop
characteristics.
Their use to replace existing physical catalysts has similar advantages:
- eliminate the use and expense of catalyst particles altogether;
- allow use of spectral catalyst delivery systems that are stronger; and
- delivery systems can be designed to incorporate superior pressure drop
characteristics.
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Catalyst size and shape are also important to spectral emission patterns
because all
objects have an NOF depending on their size and shape. The smaller an object
is in
dimension, the higher its NOF will be in frequency (because speed = length x
frequency).
Also, two (2) objects of the same size, but different shape will have
different NOF's (e.g., the
S resonant NOF frequency of a 1.0 m diameter sphere, is different from the NOF
for a 1.0 m
edged cube). Wave energies (both acoustic and EM) will have unique resonant
frequencies
for particular objects. The objects, such as physical catalyst particles or
powder granules of
reactants in a slurry, will act like antennas, absorbing and emitting energies
at their
structurally resonant frequencies. With this understanding, one is further
able to manipulate
and control the size and shape of reaction system components (e.g., physical
catalysts,
reactants, etc.) to achieve desired effects. For example, a transient for a
desired reaction
pathway may produce a spectral rotational frequency of 30 GHz. Catalyst
spheres 1 cm in
diameter with structural EM resonant frequency of 30 GHz (3x10gm/s 1x10-2m =
30x109Hz),
can be used to catalyze the reaction. The catalyst particles will structurally
resonate with the
rotational frequency of the transient, providing energy to the transient and
catalyzing the
reaction. Likewise, the structurally resonant catalyst particles may be
further energized by a
spectral energy catalyst, such as, for example, 30 ~GHz microwave radiation.
Thus
understood, the spectral dynamics of chemical reactions can be much more
precisely
controlled than in prior art trial and error approaches.
SOLVENTS
Typically, the term solvent is applied to mixtures for which the solvent is a
liquid,
however, it should be understood that solvents may also comprise solids,
liquids, gases or
plasmas and/or mixtures and/or components thereof. The prior art typically
groups liquid
solvents into three broad classes: aqueous, organic, and non-aqueous. If an
aqueous solvent
is used, it means that the solvent is water. Organic solvents include
hydrocarbons such as
alcohols and ethers. Non-aqueous solvents include inorganic non-water
substances. Many
catalyzed reactions take place in solvents.
Because solvents are themselves composed of atoms, molecules and/or ions they
can
have pronounced effects on chemical reactions. Solvents are comprised of
matter and they
emit their own spectral frequencies. The present invention teaches that these
solvent
frequencies undergo the same basic processes discussed earlier, including
heterodyning,
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resonance, and harmonics. Spectroscopists have known for years that a solvent
can
dramatically affect the spectral frequencies produced by its' solutes.
Likewise, chemists have
known for years that solvents can affect catalyst activity. However, the
spectroscopists and
chemists in the prior art have apparently not associated these long studied
changes in solute
frequencies with changes in catalyst activity. The present invention
recognizes that these
changes in solute spectral frequencies can affect catalyst activity and
chemical reactions
and/or reaction pathways in general, changes include spectral curve
broadening. Changes of
curve intensity, gradual or abrupt shifting of the resonant frequency fo, and
even abrupt
rearrangement of resonant frequencies.
When reviewing Figure 24a, the solid line represents a portion of the spectral
pattern
of phthalic acid in alcohol while the dotted line represents phthalic acid in
the solvent hexane.
Consider a reaction taking place in alcohol, in which the catalyst resonates
with phthalic acid
at a frequency of 1,250, the large solid curve in the middle. If the solvent
is changed to
hexane, the phthalic acid no longer resonates at a frequency of 1,250 and the
catalyst can not
stimulate and energize it. The change in solvent will render the catalyst
ineffective.
Similarly, in reference to Figure 24b, iodine produces a high intensity curve
at 580
when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride, as shown in curve B. In alcohol, as
shown by curve
A the iodine produces instead, a moderate intensity curve at 1,050 and a low
intensity curve
at 850. Accordingly, assume that a reaction uses a spectral catalyst that
resonates directly
with the iodine in carbon tetrachloride at 580. If the spectral catalyst does
not change and the
solvent is changed to alcohol, the spectral catalyst will no longer function
because
frequencies no longer match and energy will not transfer. Specifically, the
spectral catalyst's
frequency of 580 will no longer match and resonate with the new iodine
frequencies of 850
and 1,050.
However, there is the possibility that the catalyst will change its spectral
pattern with
a change in the solvent. The catalyst could change in a similar manner to the
iodine, in-which
case the catalyst may continue to catalyze the reaction regardless of the
change in solvent.
Conversely, the spectral catalyst pattern could change in a direction opposite
to the spectral
pattern of the iodine. In this instance, the catalyst will again fail to
catalyze the original
reaction. There is also the possibility that the change in the catalyst could
bring the catalyst
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into resonance with a different chemical species and help the reaction proceed
down an
alternative reaction pathway.
Finally, consider the graph in Figure 24c, which shows a variety of solvent
mixtures
ranging from 100% benzene at the far left, to a 50:50 mixture of benzene and
alcohol in the
center, to 100% alcohol at the far right. The solute is phenylazophenol. The
phenylazophenol has a frequency of 85.5-860 for most of the solvent mixtures.
For a 50:50
benzene:alcohol mixture the frequency is 855; or for a 98:2 benzene:alcohol
mixture the
frequency is still 855. However,.at 99.5:0.5 benzene:alcohol mixture, the
frequency abruptly
changes to about 865. A catalyst active in 100% benzene by resonating with the
phenylazophenol at 865, will lose its activity if there is even a slight
amount of alcohol (e.g.,
0.5%) in the solvent.
Thus understood, the principles of spectral chemistry presented herein can be
applied
to catalysis, and reactions and/or reaction pathways in general. Instead of
using the prior art
trial and error approach to the choice of solvents andlor other reaction
system components,
solvents can be tailored and/or modified to. optimize the spectral
environmental reaction
conditions. For example, a reaction may have a key reaction participant which
resonates at
400 THz, while the catalyst resonates at 800 THz transferring energy
harmonically.
Changing the solvent may cause the resonant frequencies of both the
participant and the
catalyst to abruptly shift to 600 THz. There the catalyst would resonate
directly with the
participant, transferring even more energy, and catalyzing the reaction system
more
efficiently.
SUPPORT MATERIALS
Catalysts can be either unsupported or supported. An unsupported catalyst is a
formulation of the pure catalyst, with substantially no other molecules
present. Unsupported
catalysts are rarely used industrially because these catalysts generally have
low surface area
and hence low activity. The low surface area can result from, for example,
sintering, or
coalescence of small molecules of the catalyst into larger particles in a
process which reduces
surface tension of the particles. An example of an unsupported catalyst is
platinum alloy
gauze, which is sometimes used for the selective oxidation of ammonia to
nitric oxide.
Another example is small silver granules, sometimes used to catalyze the
reaction of
methanol with air, to form formaldehyde. When the use of unsupported catalysts
is possible,
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their advantages include straightforward fabrication and relatively simple
installation in
various industrial processes.
A supported catalyst is a formulation of the catalyst with other particles,
the other
particles acting as a supporting skeleton for the catalyst. Traditionally, the
support particles
are thought to be inert, thus providing a simple physical scaffolding for the
catalyst
molecules. Thus, one of the traditional functions of the support material is
to give the
catalyst shape and mechanical strength. The support material is also said to
reduce sintering
rates. If the catalyst support is finely divided similar to the catalyst, the
support will act as a
"spacer" between the catalyst particles, and hence prevent sintering. An
alternative theory
holds that an interaction takes place between the catalyst and support,
thereby preventing
sintering. This theory is supported by the many observations that catalyst
activity is altered
by changes in support material structure and composition.
Supported catalysts are generally made by one or more of the following three
methods: impregnation, precipitation, and/or crystallization. Impregnation
techniques use
preformed support materials, which are then exposed to a solution containing
the catalyst or
its precursors. The catalyst or precursors diffuse into the pores of the
support. Heating, or
another conversion process, drives off the solvent and transforms the catalyst
or precursors
into the final catalyst. The most common support materials for impregnation
are refractory
oxides such as aluminas and aluminum hydrous oxides. These support materials
have found
their greatest use for catalysts that must operate under extreme conditions
such as steam
reforming, because they have reasonable mechanical strengths.
Precipitation techniques use concentrated solutions of catalyst salts (e.g.,
usually
metal salts). The salt solutions are rapidly mixed and then allowed to
precipitate in a finely
divided form. The precipitate is then prepared using a variety of processes
including
washing, filtering, drying, heating, and pelleting. Often a graphitic
lubricant is added.
Precipitated catalysts have high catalytic activity secondary to high surface
area, but they are
generally not as strong as impregnated catalysts.
Crystallization techniques produce support materials called zeolites. The
structure of
these crystallized catalyst zeolites is based on Si04 and A104 (see Figure 25a
which shows
the tetrahedral units of silicon; and Figure 25b which shows the tetrahedral
units of
aluminum). These units link in different combinations to form structural
families, which
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include rings, chains, and complex polyhedra. For example, the Si04 and A104
tetrahderal
units can form truncated octahedron structures, which form the building blocks
for A, X, and
Y zeolites (see Figure 26a which shows a truncated octahedron structure with
lines
representing oxygen atoms and corners are A1 or Si atoms; Figure 26b which
shows zeolite
with joined truncated octahedrons joined by oxygen bridges between square
faces; and Figure
26c which shows zeolites X and Y with joined truncated octahedrons joined by
oxygen
bridges between hexagonal faces).
The crystalline structure of zeolites gives them a well defined pore size and
structure.
This differs from the varying pore sizes found in impregnated or precipitated
support
materials. Zeolite crystals are made by mixing solutions of silicates and
aluminates and the
catalyst. Crystallization is generally induced by heating (see spectral
effects of temperture in
the Section entitled "Temperature"). The structure of the resulting zeolite
depends on the
silicon/aluminum ratio, their concentration, the presence of added catalyst,
the temperature,
and even the size of the reaction vessels used, all of which are environmental
reaction
conditions. Zeolites generally have greater specificity than other catalyst
support materials
(e.g., they do not just speed up the reaction). They also may steer the
reaction towards a
particular reaction pathway.
Support materials can affect the activity of a catalyst. Traditionally, the
prior art has
attributed these effects to geometric factors. However, according to the
present invention,
there are spectral factors to consider as well. It has been well established
that solvents affect
the spectral patterns produced by their solutes. Solvents can be liquids,
solids, gases and/or
plasmas Support materials can, in many cases, be viewed as nothing more than
solid solvents
for catalysts. As such, support materials can affect the spectral patterns
produced by their
solute catalysts.
Just as dissolved sugar can be placed into a solid phase solvent (ice),
catalysts can be
placed into support materials that are solid phase solvents. These support
material solid
solvents can have similar spectral effects on catalysts that liquid solvents
have. Support
materials can change spectral frequencies of their catalyst solutes by, for
example, causing
spectral curve broadening, changing of curve intensity, gradual or abrupt
shifting of the
resonant frequency fo, and even abrupt rearrangement of resonant frequencies.
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Thus, due to the disclosure herein, it should become clear to an artisan of
ordinary
skill that changes in support materials can have dramatic effects on catalyst
activity. The
support materials affect the spectral frequencies produced by the catalysts.
The changes in
catalyst spectral frequencies produce varying effects on chemical reactions
and catalyst
activity, including accelerating the rate of reaction and also guiding the
reaction on a
particular reaction path. Thus support materials can potentially influence the
matching of
frequencies and can thus favor the possibility of transferring energy between
reaction system
components and/or spectral energy patterns, thus permitting certain reactions
to occur.
POISONING
Poisoning of catalysts occurs when the catalyst activity is reduced by adding
a small
amount of another constituent, such as a chemical species. The prior art has
attributed
poisoning to chemical species that contain excess electrons (e.g., electron
donor materials)
and to adsorption of poisons onto the physical catalyst surface where the
poison physically
blocks reaction sites. However, neither of these theories satisfactorily
explains poisoning.
Consider the case of nickel hydrogenation catalysts. These physical catalysts
are
substantially deactivated if only 0.1 % sulphur compounds by weight are
adsorbed onto them.
It is difficult to believe that 0.1% sulphur by weight could contribute so
many electrons as to
inactivate the nickel catalyst. Likewise, it is difficult to.believe that the
presence of 0.1%
sulphur by weight occupies so many reaction sites that it completely
deactivates the catalyst.
Accordingly, neither prior art explanation is satisfying.
Poisoning phenomena can be more logically understood in terms of spectral
chemistry. In reference to the example in the Solvent Section using a benzene
solvent and
phenylazophenol as the solute, in pure benzene the phenylazophenol had a
spectral frequency
of 865 Hz. The addition of just a few drops of alcohol (0.5%) abruptly changed
the
phenylazophenol frequency to 855. If the expectation was for the
phenylazophenol to
resonate at 865, then the alcohol would have poisoned that particular
reaction. The addition
of small quantities of other chemical species can change the resonant
frequencies (f°) of
catalysts and reacting chemicals. The addition of another chemical species can
act as a
poison to take the catalyst and reacting species out of resonance. (i.e., the
presence of the
additional species can remove any substantial overlapping of frequencies and
thus prevent
any significant transfer of energy).
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Besides changing resonant frequencies of chemical species, adding small
amounts of
other chemicals can also affect the spectral intensities of the catalyst and,
for example, other
atoms and molecules in the reaction system by either increasing or decreasing
the spectral
intensities. Consider cadmium and zinc mixed in an alumina-silica precipitate
(see Figure 27
which shows the influences of copper and bismuth on the zinc/cadmium line
ratio). A normal
ratio between the cadmium~3252.5 spectral line and the zinc 3345.0 spectral
line was
determined. The addition of sodium, potassium, lead, and magnesium had little
or no effect
on the CdlZn intensity ratio. However, the addition of copper reduced the
relative intensity
of the zinc line and increased the cadmium intensity. Conversely, addition of
bismuth
increased the relative intensity of the zinc line while decreasing cadmium.
Also, consider the effect of small amounts of magnesium on a copper-aluminum
mixture (see Figure 28 which shows the influence of magnesium on the copper
aluminum
intensity ratio). Magnesium present at 0.6%, caused significant reductions in
line intensity
for copper and for aluminum. At 1.4% magnesium, the spectral intensities for
both copper
and aluminum were reduced by about a third. If the copper frequency is
important for
catalyzing a reaction, adding this small amount of magnesium would
dramatically reduce the
catalyst activity. Thus, it could be concluded that the copper catalyst had
been poisoned by
the magnesium.
In summary, poisoning effects on catalysts are due to spectral changes. Adding
a
small amount of another chemical species to a physical catalyst and/or
reaction system can
change the resonance frequencies or the spectral intensities of one or more
chemical species
(e.g., reactant). The catalyst might remain the same, while a crucial
intermediate is changed.
Likewise, the catalyst might change, while the intermediate stays the same.
They might both
change, or they might both stay the same and be oblivious to the added poison
species. This
understanding is important to achieving the goals of the present invention
which include
targeting species to cause an overlap in frequencies, or in this instance,
specifically targeting
one or more species so as to prevent any substantial overlap in frequencies
and thus prevent
reactions from occurring by blocking the transfer of energy.
PROMOTERS
Just as adding a small amount of another chemical species to a catalyst and
reaction
system can poison the activity of the catalyst, the opposite can also happen.
When an added
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species enhances the activity of a catalyst, it is called a promoter. For
instance, adding a few
percent calcium and potassium oxide to iron-alumina compounds promotes
activity of the
iron catalyst for ammonia synthesis. Promoters act by all the mechanisms
discussed
previously in the Sections entitled Solvents, Support Materials, and
Poisoning. Not
surprisingly, some support materials actually are promoters. Promoters enhance
catalysts and
specific reactions and/or reaction pathways by changing spectral frequencies
and intensities.
While a catalyst poison takes the reacting species out of resonance (i.e., the
frequencies do
not overlap), the promoter brings them into resonance (i.e., the frequencies
do overlap).
Likewise, instead of reducing the spectral intensity of crucial frequencies,
the promoter may
increase the crucial intensities.
Thus, if it was desired for phenylazophenol to react at 855 in a benzene
solvent,
alcohol could be added and the alcohol would be termed a promoter. If it was
desired for the
phenylazophenol too react at 865, alcohol could be added and the alcohol could
be
considered a poison. Thus understood, the differences between poisons and
promoters are a
matter of perspective, and depend on which reaction pathways and/or reaction
products are
desired. They both act by the same underlying spectral chemistry mechanisms of
the present
invention.
CONCENTRATION
Concentrations of chemical species are known to affect reaction rates and
dynamics.
Concentration also affects catalyst activity. The prior art explains these
effects by the
probabilities that various chemical species will collide with each other. At
high
concentrations of a particular species, there are many individual atoms or
molecules present.
The more atoms or molecules present, the more likely they are to collide with
something else.
However, this statistical treatment by the prior art does not explain the
entire situation.
Figure 29 shows various concentrations ofN-methyl urethane in a carbon
tetrachloride
solution. At low concentrations, the spectral lines have a relatively low
intensity. However,
as the concentration is increased, the intensities of the spectral curves
increase also. At 0.01
molarity, the spectral curve at 3,460 cm 1 is the only prominent frequency.
However, at 0.15
molarity, the curves at 3,370 and 3,300 cm 1 are also prominent.
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As the concentration of a chemical species is changed, the spectral character
of that
species in the reaction mixture changes also. Suppose that 3,300 and 3,370 cm
~ are
important frequencies for a desired reaction pathway. At low concentrations
the desired
reaction pathway will not occur. However, if the concentrations are increased
(and hence the
intensities of the relevant frequencies) the reaction will proceed down the
desired pathway.
Concentration is also related to solvents, support structures, poisons and
promoters, as
previously discussed.
FINE STRUCTURE FREQUENCIES
The field of science concerned generally with measuring the frequencies of
energy
and matter, known as spectroscopy, has already been discussed herein.
Specifically, the three
broad classes of atomic and molecular spectra were reviewed. Electronic
spectra, which are
due to electron transitions, have frequencies primarily in the ultraviolet
(UV), visible, and
infrared (IR) regions, and occur in atoms and molecules. Vibrational spectra,
which are due
to, for example, bond motion between individual atoms within molecules, are
primarily in the
IR, and occur in molecules. Rotational spectra are due primarily to rotation
of molecules in
space and have microwave or radiowave frequencies, and also occur in
molecules.
The previous discussion of various spectra and spectroscopy has been
oversimplified.
There are actually at least three additional sets of spectra, which comprise
the spectrum
discussed above herein, namely, the fine structure spectra and the hyperfine
structure spectra
and the superfine structure spectra. These spectra occur in atoms and
molecules, and extend,
for example, from the ultraviolet down to the low radio regions. These spectra
are often
mentioned in prior art chemistry and spectroscopy books typically as an aside,
because prior
art chemists typically focus more on the traditional types of spectroscopy,
namely, electronic,
vibrational, and rotational.
The fine and hyperfine spectra are quite prevalent in the areas of physics and
radio
astronomy. For example, cosmologists map the locations of interstellar clouds
of hydrogen,
and collect data regarding the origins of the universe by detecting signals
from outerspace,
for example, at 1.424 GHz, a microwave frequency which is one of the hyperfine
splitting
frequencies for hydrogen. Most of the large databases concerning the microwave
and radio
frequencies of molecules and atoms have been developed by astronomers and
physicists,
rather than by chemists. This apparent gap between the use by chemists and
physicists, of the
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fine and hyperfine spectra in chemistry, has apparently resulted in prior art
chemists not
giving much, if any, attention to these potentially useful spectra.
Referring again to Figures 9a and 9b, the Balmer series (i.e., frequency curve
II),
begins with a frequency of 456 THz (see Figure 30a). Closer examination of
this individual
frequency shows that instead of there being just one crisp narrow curve at 456
THz, there are
really seven different curves very close together that comprise the curve at
456 THz. The
seven (7) different curves are fine structure frequencies. Figure 30b shows
the emission
spectrum for the 456 THz curve in hydrogen. A high-resolution laser saturation
spectrum,
shown in Figure 31, gives even more detail. These seven different curves,
which are
positioned very close together, are generally referred to as a multiplet.
Although there are seven different fine structure frequencies shown, these
seven
frequencies are grouped around two major frequencies. These are the two, tall,
relatively
high intensity curves shown in Figure 30b. These two high intensity curves are
also shown in
Figure 31 at zero cm 1 (456.676 THz), and at relative wavenumber 0.34 cm 1
(456.686 THz).
What appears to be a single frequency of (456 THz), is actually composed
predominantly of
two slightly different frequencies (456.676 and 456.686 THz), and the two
frequencies are
typically referred to as doublet and the frequencies are said to be split. The
difference or split
between the two predominant frequencies in the hydrogen 456 THz doublet is
0.010 THz
(100 THz) or 0.34 cm 1 wavnumbers. This difference frequency, 10 GHz, is
called the fine
splitting frequency for the 456 THz frequency of hydrogen.
Thus, the individual frequencies that are typically shown in ordinary
electronic
spectra are composed of two or more distinct frequencies spaced very close
together. The
distinct frequencies spaced very close together are called fine structure
frequencies. The
difference, between two fine structure frequencies that are split apart by a
very slight amount,
is a fine splitting frequency (see Figure 32 which shows f1 and f2 which
comprise fo and
which are shown as underneath fo. The difference between fl and f2 is known as
the fine
splitting frequency). This "difference" between two fine structure frequencies
is important
because such a difference between any two frequencies is a heterodyne.
Almost all the hydrogen frequencies shown in Figures 9a and 9b are doublets or
multiplets. This means that almost all the hydrogen electronic spectrum
frequencies have
fine structure frequencies and fine splitting frequencies (which means that
these heterodynes
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are available to be used as spectral catalysts, if desired). The present
invention discloses that
these "differences" or heterodynes can be quite useful for certain reactions.
However, prior
to discussing the use of these heterodynes, in the present invention, more
must be understood
about these heterodynes. Some of the fine splitting frequencies (i.e.,
heterodynes) for
hydrogen are listed in Table 3. These fine splitting heterodynes range from
the microwave
down into the upper reaches of the radio frequency region.
Table 3 - Fine Splitting Frequencies for Hydrogen
Frequency (THz) Orbital Wavenumber~cni 1) Fine Splitting Frequency
2,466 2p 0.365 10.87 GHz
456 n2-->3 0.340 10.02 GHz
2,923 3p 0.108 3.23 GHz
2,923 3d 0.036 1.06 GHz
3,082 4p 0.046 1.38 GHz
3,082 4d 0.015 448.00 MHz
3,082 4f 0.008 239.00 MHz
There are more than 23 fine splitting frequencies (i.e., heterodynes) for just
the first
series or curve I in hydrogen. Lists of the fine splitting heterodynes can be
found, for
example; in the classic 1949 reference "Atomic Energy Levels" by Charlotte
Moore. This
reference also lists 133 fine splitting heterodyned intervals for carbon,
whose frequencies
range from 14.1 THz (473.3 cm') down to 12.2. GHz (0.41 cm'). Oxygen has 287
fine
splitting heterodynes listed from 15.9 THz (532.5 cm-1) down to 3.88 GHz (0.13
cm 1). The
23 platinum fine splitting intervals detailed are from 23.3 THz (775.9 cm 1)
to 8.62 THz in
frequency (287.9 cm 1).
Diagrammatically, the magnification and resolution of an electronic frequency
into
several closely spaced fine frequencies is depicted in Figure 33. The
electronic orbit is
designated by the orbital number n = 0, 1, 2, etc. The fine structure is
designated as a. A
quantum diagram for the hydrogen fine structure is shown in Figure 34.
Specifically, shown
is the fine structure of the n = 1 and n = 2 levels of the hydrogen atom.
Figure 35 shows the
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multiplet splittings for the lowest energy levels of carbon, oxygen, and
fluorine, as
represented by "C", "O" and "F", respectively.
In addition to the fine splitting frequencies for atoms (i.e., heterodynes),
molecules
also have similar fine structure frequencies. The origin and derivation for
molecular fine
structure and splitting is different from that for atoms, however, the
graphical and practical
results are quite similar. In atoms, the fine structure frequencies are said
to result from the
interaction of the spinning electron with its' own magnetic field. Basically,
this means the
electron cloud of a single atomic sphere, rotating and interacting with its'
own magnetic field,
produces the atomic fine structure frequencies. The prior art refers to this
phenomena as
"spin-orbit coupling". For molecules, the fine structure frequencies
correspond to the actual
rotational frequencies of the electronic or vibrational frequencies. So the
fine structure
frequencies for atoms and molecules both result from rotation. In the case of
atoms, it is the
atom spinning and rotating around itself, much the way the earth rotates
around its axis. In
the case of molecules, it is the molecule spinning and rotating through space.
Figure 36 shows the infrared absorption spectrum of the SF6 vibration band
near 28.3
THz (10.6 ~,m wavelength, wavenumber 948 cm 1) of the SF6 molecule. The
molecule is
highly symmetrical and rotates somewhat like a top. The spectral tracing was
obtained with a
high resolution grating spectrometer. There is a broad band between 941 and
952 cm 1 (28.1
and 28.5 THz) with three sharp spectral curves at 946, 947, and 948 cm 1
(28.3, 28.32, and
23.834 THz).
Figure 37a shows a narrow slice being taken from between 949 and 950 cm l,
which
is blown up to show more detail in Figure 37b. A tunable semiconductor diode
laser was
used to obtain the detail. There are many more spectral curves which appear
when the
spectrum is reviewed in finer detail. These curves are called the fine
structure frequencies for
this molecule. The total energy of an atom or molecule is the sum of its'
electronic,
vibrational, and rotational energies. Thus, the simple Planck equation
discussed previously
herein:
E=by
can be rewritten as follows:
E=Ee+E,,+E~
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where E is the total energy, Ee is the electronic energy, E~, is the
vibrational energy, and E~ is
the rotational energy. Diagrammatically, this equation is shown in Figure 38
for molecules.
The electronic energy, Ee, involves a change in the orbit of one of the
electrons in the
molecule. It is designated by the orbital number n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. The
vibrational energy,
E~,, is produced by a change in the vibration rate between two atoms within
the molecule, and
is designated by a vibrational number v = 1, 2, 3, etc. Lastly, the rotational
energy, Er, is the
energy of rotation caused by the molecule rotating around its' center of mass.
The rotational
energy is designated by the quantum number J = 1, 2, and 3, etc., as
determined form angular
momentum equations.
Thus, by examining the vibrational frequencies of SF6 in more detail, the fme
structure molecular frequencies become apparent. These fine structure
frequencies are
actually produced by the molecular rotations, "J", as a subset of each
vibrational frequency.
Just as the rotational levels "J" are substantially evenly separated in Figure
38, they are also
substantially evenly separated when plotted as frequencies.
This concept may be easier to understand by viewing some additional frequency
diagrams. For example, Figure 39a shows the pure rotational absorption
spectrum for
gaseous hydrogen-chloride and Figure 39b shows the same spectrum at low
resolution. In
Figure 39a, the separate waves, that look something like teeth on a "comb",
correspond to the
individual rotational frequencies. The complete wave (i.e., that wave
comprising the whole
comb) that extends in frequency from 20 to 500 cm'1 corresponds to the entire
vibrational .
frequency. At low resolution or magnification, this set of rotational
frequencies appear to be
a single frequency peaking at about 20 cm 1 (598 GHz) (see Figure 39b). This
is very similar
to the way atomic frequencies such as the 456 THz hydrogen frequency appear
(i.e., just one
frequency at low resolution, that turn out to be several different frequencies
at higher
magnification).
In Figure 40, the rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structure) of hydrogen
cyanide is
shown, where "J" is the rotational level. Note again, the regular spacing of
the rotational
levels. (Note that this spectrum is oriented opposite of what is typical).
This spectrum uses
transmission rather than emission on the horizontal Y-axis, thus, intensity
increases
downward on the Y-axis, rather than upwards.
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Additionally, Figure 41 shows the vl -vs vibrational bands for FCCF (where v1
is
vibrational level l and v5 vibrational level 5) which includes a plurality of
rotational
frequencies. All of the fine sawtooth spikes are the fine structure
frequencies which
correspond to the rotational frequencies. Note, the substantially regular
spacing of the
rotational frequencies. Also note, the undulating pattern of the rotational
frequency intensity,
as well as the alternating pattern of the rotational frequency intensities.
Consider the actual rotational frequencies (i.e., fine structure frequencies)
for the
ground state of carbon monoxide listed in Table 4.
Table 4. Rotational Frequencies and Derived Rotational Constant
for CO in the Ground State
J Transition FrequencX (MHz) Frequency (GHz)
0 ~ 1 115,271.204 115
1 --> 2 230,537.974 230
2 -> 3 345,795.989 346
3 -~ 4 461,040.811 461
4 ~ S 576,267.934 576
5 ~ 6 691,472.978 691
6 - 7 806,651.719 807
Where; Bo = 57,635.970 MHz
Each of the rotational frequencies is regularly spaced at approximately 115
GHz apart. Prior
art quantum theorists would explain this regular spacing as being due to the
fact that the
rotational frequencies are related to Planck's constant and the moment of
inertia (i.e., center
of mass for the molecule) by the equation:
B= h
8n2I
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where B is the rotational constant, h is Planck's constant, and I is the
moment of inertia for
the molecule. From there the prior art established a frequency equation for
the rotational
levels that corresponds to:
f=2B(J+ 1)
where f is the frequency, B is the rotational constant, and J is the
rotational level. Thus, the
rotational spectrum (i.e., fine structure spectrum) for a molecule turns out
to be a harmonic
series of lines with the frequencies all spaced or split (i.e., heterodyned)
by the same amount.
This amount has been referred to in the prior art as "2B", and "B" has been
referred to as the
"rotational constant". In existing charts and databases of molecular
frequencies, "B" is
usually listed as a frequency such as MHz. This is graphically represented for
the first four
rotational frequencies for CO in Figure 42.
This fact is interesting for several reasons. The rotational constant "B",
listed in many
databases, is equal to one half of the difference between rotational
frequencies for a molecule.
That means that B is the first subharmonic frequency, to the fundamental
frequency "2B",
which is the heterodyned difference between all the rotational frequencies.
The rotational
constant B listed for carbon monoxide is 57.6 GHz (57,635.970 MHz). This is
basically half
of the 115 GHz difference between the rotational frequencies. Thus, according
to the present
invention, if it is desired to stimulate a molecule's rotational levels, the
amount "2B" can be
used, because it is the fundamental first generation heterodyne.
Alternatively, the same "B"
can be used because "B" corresponds to the first subharmonic of that
heterodyne.
Further, the prior art teaches that if it is desired to use microwaves for
stimulation, the
microwave frequencies used will be restricted to stimulating levels at or near
the ground state
of the molecule (i.e., n = 0 in Figure 38). The prior art teaches that as you
progress upward in
Figure 38 to the higher electronic and vibrational levels, the required
frequencies will
correspond to the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions. However, the
prior art is wrong
about this point.
By referring to Figure 38 again, it is clear that the rotational frequencies
are evenly
spaced out no matter what electronic or vibrational level is under scrutiny.
The even spacing
shown in Figure 38 is due to the rotational frequencies being evenly spaced as
progression is
made upwards through all the higher vibrational and electronic levels. Table 5
lists the
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rotational frequencies for lithium fluoride (LiF) at several different
rotational and vibrational
levels.
S
15
Table 5. Rotational Frequencies for Lithium Fluoride (LiF)
Vibrational Level Rotational Transition Frequency (MHz)
0 0 -j 1 89,740.46
0 ~ 1 -~ 2 179,470.35
0 2 -~ 3 269,179.18
0 3 ---> 4 358,856.19
0 4 ---> 5 448,491.07
0 5 --~ 6 538,072.65
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1 0 -~ 1 88,319.18
1 1 -j 2 176,627.91
1 2 -- 3 264,915.79
1 3 ---> 4 353,172.23
1 4 -~ 5 441,386.83
2 0 -~ 1 86,921.20
2 1 --> 2 173,832.04
2 2 --> 3 260,722.24
2 3 ---> 4 347,581.39
3 1 ---> 2 ' 171,082.27
3 2 --~ 3 256,597.84
3 3 -- 4 342,082.66
It is clear from Table 5 that the differences between rotational frequencies,
no matter
what the vibrational level, is about 86,000 to about 89,000 MHz (i.e., 86-89
GHz). Thus,
according to the present invention, by using a microwave frequency between
about 86,000
MHz and 89,000 MHz, the molecule can be stimulated from the ground state level
all the way
up to its' highest energy levels. This effect has not been even remotely
suggested by the prior
art. Specifically, the rotational frequencies of molecules can be manipulated
in a unique
manner. The first rotational level has a natural oscillatory frequency (NOF)
of 89,740 MHz.
The second rotational level has an NOF of 179,470 MHz. Thus,
NOFrotational 1-.2 - NOFrotationa~ 0-.1 = Subtracted Frequency rotational 2-1
~
or
179,470 MHz - 89,740 MHz = 89,730 MHz
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Thus, the present invention has discovered that the NOF's of the rotational
frequencies heterodyne by adding and subtracting in a manner similar to the
manner that all
frequencies heterodyne. Specifically, the two rotational frequencies
heterodyne to produce a
subtracted frequency. This subtracted frequency happens to be exactly twice as
big as the
derived rotational constant "B" listed in nuclear physics and spectroscopy
manuals. Thus,
when the first rotational frequency in the molecule is stimulated with the
Subtracted
Frequency rotational 2-1, the first rotational frequency will heterodyne
(i.e., in this case add) with
the NOFrotational o~i (i.e., first rotational frequency) to produce
NOFrotational i--~2, which is the
natural oscillatory frequency of the molecule's second rotational level.
I 0 In other words:
Subtracted Frequency rotational 2-1 + NOFrotational 0-al = NOFrotational 1-.2~
Or 89,730 MHz + 89,740 MHz =179,470 MHz
Since the present invention has disclosed that the rotational frequencies are
actually
evenly spaced harmonics, the subtracted frequency will also add with the
second level NOF
to produce the third level NOF. The subtracted frequency will add with the
third level NOF
to produce the fourth level NOF. And so on and so on. Thus, according to the
present
invention, by using one single microwave frequency, it is possible to
stimulate all the
rotational levels in a vibratory band.
Moreover, if all the rotational levels for a vibrational frequency are
excited, then the
vibrational frequency will also be correspondingly excited. Further, if all
the vibrational
levels for an electronic level are excited, then the electronic level will be
excited as well.
Thus, according to the teachings of the present invention, it is possible to
excite the highest
levels of the electronic and vibrational structure of a molecule by using a
single microwave
frequency. This is contrary to the prior art teachings that the use of
microwaves is restricted
to the ground state of the molecule. Specifically, if the goal is to resonate
directly with an
upper vibrational or electronic level, the prior art teaches that microwave
frequencies can not
be used. If, however, according to the present invention, a catalytic
mechanism of action is
initiated by, for example, resonating with target species indirectly through
heterodynes, then
one or more microwave frequencies can be used to energize at least one upper
level
vibrational or electronic state. Accordingly, by using the teachings of the
present invention in
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conjunction with the simple processes of heterodyning it becomes readily
apparent that
microwave frequencies are not limited to the ground state levels of molecules.
The present invention has determined that catalysts can actually stimulate
target
species indirectly by utilizing at least one heterodyne frequency (e.g.,
harmonic). However,
catalysts can also stimulate the target species by direct resonance with at
least one
fundamental frequency of interest. However, the rotational frequencies can
result in use of
both mechanisms. For example, Figure 42 shows a graphical representation of
fine structure
spectrum showing the first four rotational frequencies for CO in the ground
state. The first
rotational frequency for CO is 115 GHz. The heterodyned difference between
rotational
frequencies is also 115 GHz. The first rotational frequency and the
heterodyned difference
between frequencies are identical. All of the upper level rotational
frequencies are harmonics
of the first frequency. This relationship is not as apparent when one deals
only with the
rotational constant "B" of the prior art. However, frequency-based spectral
chemistry
analyses, like those of the present invention, makes such concepts easier to
understand.
Examination of the first level rotational frequencies for LiF shows that it is
nearly
identical to the heterodyned difference between it and the second level
rotational frequency.
The rotational frequencies are sequential harmonics of the first rotational
frequency.
Accordingly, if a molecule is stimulated with a frequency equal to 2B (i.e., a
heterodyned
harmonic difference between rotational frequencies) the present invention
teaches that energy
will resonate with all the upper rotational frequencies indirectly through
heterodynes, and
resonate directly with the first rotational frequency. This is an important
discovery.
The prior art discloses a number of, constants used in spectroscopy that
relate in some
way or another to the frequencies of atoms and molecule, just as the
rotational constant "B"
relates to the harmonic spacing of rotational fme structure molecular
frequencies. The alpha
(a) rotation-vibration constant is a good example of this. The alpha rotation-
vibration
frequency constant is related to slight changes in the frequencies for the
same rotational level,
when the vibrational level changes. For example, Figure 43a shows the
frequencies for the
same rotational levels, but different vibrational levels for LiF. The
frequencies are almost the
same, but vary by a few percent between the different vibrational levels.
Referring to Figure 43b, the differences between all the frequencies for the
various
rotational transitions at different vibrational levels of Figure 43a are
shown. The rotational
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transition 0 --> 1 in the top line of Figure 43b has a frequency of 89,740.46
MHz at
vibrational level 0. At vibrational level 1, the 0 -> 1 transition is
88,319.18 MHz. The
difference between these two rotational frequencies is 1,421.28 MHz. At
vibrational level 2,
the 0 --~ 1 transition is 86,921.20 MHz. The difference between it and the
vibrational level 1
frequency (88,319.18 MHz) is 1,397.98 MHz. These slight differences for the
same J
rotational level between different vibrational levels are nearly identical.
For the J = 0 -> 1
rotational level they center around a frequency of 1,400 MHz.
For the J = 1 -~ 2 transition, the differences center around 2,800 Hz, and for
the
J = 2 -~ 3 transition, the differences center around 4,200 Hz. These different
frequencies of
1,400, 2,800 and 4,200,Hz etc., are all harmonics of each other. Further, they
are all
harmonics of the alpha rotation-vibration constant. Just as the actual
molecular rotational
frequencies are harmonics of the rotational constant B, the differences
between the rotational
frequencies are harmonics of the alpha rotation-vibration constant.
Accordingly, if a
molecule is stimulated with a frequency equal to the alpha vibration-rotation
frequencies, the
present invention teaches that energy will resonate with all the rotational
frequencies
indirectly through heterodynes. This is an important discovery.
Consider the rotational and vibrational states for the triatomic molecule OCS
shown
in Figure 44. Figure 44 shows the same rotational level (J = 1 ~ 2) for
different vibrational
states in the OCS molecule. For the ground vibrational (000) level, J = 1 -> 2
transition; and
the excited vibrational state (100) J = 1 -j 2 transition, the difference
between the two
frequencies is equal to 4 X alphas (4a1). In another excited state, the
frequency difference
between the ground vibrational (000) level, J = 1 --~ 2 transition, and the
center of the two l-
type doublets is 4 X alpha2 (4a2). In a higher excited vibrational state, the
frequency
difference between (000) and (02°0) is 8 X alpha2 (8a2). Thus, it can
be seen that the
rotation-vibration constants "a" are actually harmonics of molecular
frequencies. Thus,
according to the present invention, stimulating a molecule with an "a"
frequency, or a
harmonic of "a", will either directly resonate with or indirectly heterodyne
harmonically
with various rotational-vibrational frequencies of the molecule.
Another interesting constant is the l-type doubling constant. This constant is
also
shown in Figure 44. Specifically, Figure 44 shows the rotational transition J
= 1 --~ 2 for the
triatomic molecule OCS. Just as the atomic frequencies are sometimes split
into doublets or
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multiplets, the rotational frequencies are also sometimes split into doublets.
The difference
between them is called the l-type doubling constant. These constants are
usually smaller (i.e.,
of a lower frequency) than the a constants. For the OCS molecule, the a
constants are 20.56
and 10.56 MHz while the l-type doubling constant is 6.3 MHz. These frequencies
are all in
the radiowave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
As discussed previously herein, energy is transferred by two fundamental
frequency
mechanisms. If frequencies are substantially the same or match, then energy
transfers by
direct resonance. Energy can also transfer indirectly by heterodyning, (i.e.,
the frequencies
substantially match after having been added or subtracted with another
frequency). Further,
as previously stated, the direct or indirect resonant frequencies do not have
to match exactly.
If they are merely close, significant amounts of energy will still transfer.
Any of these
constants or frequencies that are related to molecules or other matter via
heterodynes, can be
used to transfer, for example, energy to the matter and hence can directly
interact with the
matter.
In the reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form water, the
present invention teaches that the energizing of the reaction intermediates of
atomic hydrogen
and the hydroxy radical are crucial to sustaining the reaction. In this
regard, the physical
catalyst platinum energizes both reaction intermediates by directly and
indirectly resonating
with them. Platinum also energizes the intermediates at multiple energy
levels, creating the
conditions for energy amplification. The present invention also teaches how to
copy
platinum's mechanism of action by making use of atomic fine structure
frequencies.
The invention has previously discussed resonating with the fine structure
frequencies
with only slight variations between the frequencies (e.g., 456.676 and 456.686
THz).
However, indirectly resonating with the fine structure frequencies, is a
significant difference.
Specifically, by using the fine splitting frequencies, which are simply the
differences or
heterodynes between the fine structure frequencies, the present invention
teaches that indirect
resonance can be achieved. By examining the hydrogen 456 THz fine structure
and fine
splitting frequencies (see, for example, Figures 30 and 31 and Table 3 many
heterodynes are
shown). In other words, the difference between the fine structure frequencies
can be
calculated as follows:
456.686 THz - 456.676 THz = 0.0102 THz =10.2 GHz
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Thus, if hydrogen atoms are subjected to 10.2 GHz electromagnetic energy
(i.e., energy
corresponding to microwaves), then the 456 THz electronic spectrum frequency
is energized
by resonating with it indirectly. In other words, the 10.2 GHz will add to
456.676 THz to
produce the resonant frequency of 456.686 THz. The 10.2 GHz will also subtract
from the
S 456.686 THz to produce the resonant frequency of 456.676 THz. Thus, by
introducing 10.2
GHz to a hydrogen atom, the hydrogen atom is excited at the 456 THz frequency.
A
microwave frequency can be used to stimulate an electronic level.
According to the present invention, it is also possible to use a combination
of
mimicked catalyst mechanisms. For example, it is possible to: 1 ) resonate
with the hydrogen
atom frequencies indirectly through heterodynes (i.e., fine splitting
frequencies); and/or 2)
resonate with the hydrogen atom at multiple frequencies. Such multiple
resonating could
occur using a combination of microwave frequencies either simultaneously, in
sequence,
and/or in chirps or bursts. For example, the individual microwave fme
splitting frequencies
for hydrogen of 10.87 GHz, 10.2 GHz, 3.23 GHz, 1.38 GHz, and 1.06 GHz could be
used in
a sequence. Further, there are many fine splitting frequencies for hydrogen
that have not
been expressly included herein, thus, depending on the frequency range of
equipment
available, the present invention provides a means for tailoring the chosen
frequencies to the
capabilities of the available equipment. Thus, the flexibility according to
the teachings of the
present invention is enormous.
Another method to deliver multiple electromagnetic energy frequencies
according to
the present invention, is to use a lower frequency as a carrier wave for a
higher frequency.
This can be done, for example, by producing 10.2 GHz EM energy in short
bursts, with the
bursts coming at a rate of about 239 MHz. Both of these frequencies are fine
splitting
frequencies for hydrogen. This can also be achieved by continuously delivering
EM energy
and by varying the amplitude at a rate of about 239 MHz. These techniques can
be used
alone or in combination with the various other techniques disclosed herein.
Thus, by mimicking one or more mechanisms of action of catalysts and by making
use of the atomic fine structure and splitting frequencies, it is possible to
energize upper
levels of atoms using microwave and radiowave frequencies. Accordingly, by
selectively
energizing or targeting particular atoms, it is possible to catalyze and guide
desirable
reactions to desired end products. Depending on the circumstances, the option
to use lower
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frequencies may have many advantages. Lower frequencies typically have much
better
penetration into large reaction spaces and volumes, and may be better suited
to large-scale
industrial applications. Lower frequencies may be easier to deliver with
portable, compact
equipment, as opposed to large, bulky equipment which delivers higher
frequencies (e.g.,
lasers). The choice of frequencies of a spectral catalyst may be for as simple
a reason as to
avoid interference from other sources of EM energy. Thus, according to the
present
invention, an understanding of the basic processes of heterodyning and fine
structure splitting
frequencies confers greater flexibility in designing and applying spectral
energy catalysts in a
targeted manner. Specifically, rather than simply reproducing the spectral
pattern of a
physical catalyst, the present invention teaches that is possible to make full
use of the entire
range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum, so long as the teachings
of the present
invention are followed. Thus, certain desirable frequencies can be applied
while other not so
desirable frequencies could be left out of an applied spectral energy catalyst
targeted to a
particular participant and/or component in the reaction system.
As a further example, reference is again made to the hydrogen and oxygen
reaction
for the formation of water. If it is desired to catalyze the water reaction by
duplicating the
catalyst's mechanism of action in the microwave region, the present invention
teaches that
several options are available. Another such option is use of the knowledge
that platinum
energizes the reaction intermediates of the hydroxy radical. In addition to
the hydrogen atom,
the B frequency for the hydroxy radical is 565.8 GHz. That means that the
actual
heterodyned difference between the rotational frequencies is 2B, or 1,131.6
GHz.
Accordingly, such a frequency could be utilized to achieve excitement of the
hydroxy radical
intermediate.
Further, the a constant for the hydroxy radical is 21.4 GHz. Accordingly, this
frequency could also be applied to energizing the hydroxy radical. Thus, by
introducing
hydrogen and oxygen gases into a chamber and irradiating the gases with 21.4
GHz, water
will be formed. This particular gigahertz energy is a harmonic heterodyne of
the rotational
frequencies for the same rotational level but different vibrational levels.
The heterodyned
frequency energizes all the rotational frequencies, which energize the
vibrational levels,
which energize the electronic frequencies, which catalyze the reaction.
Accordingly, the
aforementioned reaction could be catalyzed or targeted with a spectral
catalyst applied at
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several applicable frequencies, all of which match with one or more
frequencies in one or
more participants and thus permit energy to transfer.
Still further, delivery of frequencies of 565.8 GHz, or even 1,131.6 GHz,
would result
in substantially all of the rotational levels in the molecule becoming
energized, from the
ground state all the way up. This approach copies a catalyst mechanism of
action in two
ways. The first way is by energizing the hydroxy radical and sustaining a
crucial reaction
intermediate to catalyze the formation of water. The second mechanism copied
from the
catalyst is to energize multiple levels in the molecule. Because the
rotational constant "B"
relates to the rotational frequencies, heterodynes occur at all levels in the
molecule. Thus,
using the frequency "B" energizes all levels in the molecule. This potentiates
the
establishment of an energy amplification system such as that which occurs with
the physical
catalyst platinum.
Still further, if a molecule was energized with a frequency corresponding to
an l-type
doubling constant, such frequency could be used in a substantially similar
manner in which a
fine splitting frequency from an atomic spectrum is used. The difference
between the two
frequencies in a doublet is a heterodyne, and energizing the doublet with its'
heterodyne
frequency (i.e., the splitting frequency) would energize the basic frequency
and catalyze the
reaction.
A still further example utilizes a combination of frequencies for atomic fine
structure.
For instance, by utilizing a constant central frequency of 1,131.6 GHz (i.e.,
the heterodyned
difference between rotational frequencies for a hydroxy radical) with a
vibrato varying
around the central frequency by t 21.4 GHz (i.e., the a constant harmonic for
variations
between rotational frequencies), use could be made of 1.131.6 GHz EM energy in
short
bursts, with the bursts coming at a rate of 21.4 GHz.
Since there is slight variation between rotational frequencies for the same
level, that
frequency range can be used to construct bursts. For example, if the largest
"B" is 565.8
GHz, then a rotational frequency heterodyne corresponds to 1,131.6 GHz. If the
smallest "B"
is 551.2 GHz, this corresponds to a rotational frequency heterodyne of 1,102
GHz. Thus,
"chirps" or bursts of energy starting at 1,100 GHz and increasing in frequency
to 1,140 GHz,
could be used. In fact, the transmitter could be set to "chirp" or burst at a
rate of 21.4 GHz.
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In any event, there are many ways to make use of the atomic and molecular fine
structure frequencies, with their attendant heterodynes and harmonics. An
understanding of
catalyst mechanisms of action enables one of ordinary skill armed with the
teachings of the
present invention to utilize a spectral catalyst from the high frequency
ultraviolet and visible
light regions, down into the sometimes more manageable microwave and radiowave
regions.
Moreover, the invention enables an artisan of ordinary skill to calculate
andlor determine the
effects of microwave and radiowave energies on chemical reactions and/or
reaction
pathways.
HYPERFINE FREQUENCIES
Hyperfine structure frequencies are similar to the fine structure frequencies.
Fine
structure frequencies can be seen by magnifying a portion of a standard
frequency spectrum.
Hyperfine frequencies can be seen by magnifying a portion of a fine structure
spectrum. Fine
structure splitting frequencies occur at lower frequencies than the electronic
spectra,
primarily in the infrared and microwave regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Hyperfine
splitting frequencies occur at even lower frequencies than the fine structure
spectra, primarily
in the microwave and radio wave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Fine
structure
frequencies are generally caused by at least the electron interacting with
its' own magnetic
field. Hyperfine frequencies are generally caused by at least the electron
interacting with the
magnetic field of the nucleus.
Figure 36 shows the rotation-vibration band frequency spectra for an SF6
molecule.
The rotation-vibration band and fine structure are shown again in Figure 45.
However, the
fine structure frequencies are seen by magnifying a small section of the
standard vibrational
band spectrum (i.e., the lower portion of Figure 45 shows some of the fine
structure
frequencies). In many respects, looking at fine structure frequencies is like
using a
magnifying glass to look at a standard spectrum. Magnification of what looks
like a flat and
uninteresting portion of a standard vibrational frequency band shows many more
curves with
lower frequency splitting. These many other curves are the fine structure
curves. Similarly,
by magnifying a small and seemingly uninteresting portion of the fine
structure spectrum of
the result is yet another spectrum of many more curves known as the hyperfine
spectrum.
A small portion (i.e., from zero to 300) of the SF6 fine structure spectrum is
magnified
in Figure 46. The hyperfine spectrum includes many curves split part by even
lower
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frequencies. This time the fine structure spectrum was magnified instead of
the regular
vibrational spectrum. What is found is even more curves, even closer together.
Figures 47a
and 47b show a further magnification of the two curves marked with asterisks
(i.e., "*" and
"**") in Figure 46.
What appears to be a single crisp curve in Figure 46, turns out to be a series
of several
curves spaced very close together. These are the hyperfine frequency curves.
Accordingly,
the fine structure spectra is comprised of several more curves spaced very
close together.
These other curves spaced even closer together correspond to the hyperfine
frequencies.
Figures 47a and 47b show that the spacing of the hyperfine frequency curves
are very
close together and at somewhat regular intervals. The small amount that the
hyperfine curves
are split apart is called the hyperfine splitting frequency. The hyperfine
splitting frequency is
also a heterodyne. This concept is substantially similar to the concept of the
fine splitting
frequency. The difference between two curves that are split apart is called a
splitting
frequency. As before, the difference between two curves is referred to as a
heterodyne
frequency. So, hyperfine splitting frequencies are all heterodynes of
hyperfine frequencies.
Because the hyperfine frequency curves result from a magnification of the fine
structure curves, the hyperfine splitting frequencies occur at only a fraction
of the fine
structure splitting frequencies. The fine structure splitting frequencies are
really just several
curves, spaced very close together around the regular spectrum frequency.
Magnification of
fine structure splitting frequencies results in hyperfine splitting
frequencies. The hyperfine
splitting frequencies are really just several more curves, spaced very close
together. The
closer together the curves are, the smaller the distance or frequency
separating them. Now
the distance separating any two curves is a heterodyne frequency. So, the
closer together any
two curves are, the smaller (lower) is the heterodyne frequency between them.
The distance
between hyperfine splitting frequencies (i.e., the amount that hyperfine
frequencies are split
apart) is the hyperfine splitting frequency. It can also be called a constant
or interval.
The electronic spectrum frequency of hydrogen is 2,466 THz. The 2,466 THz
frequency is made up of fine structure curves spaced 10.87 GHz (0.01087 THz)
apart. Thus,
the fine splitting frequency is 10.87 GHz. Now the fine structure curves are
made up of
hyperfine curves. These hyperfine curves are spaced just 23.68 and 59.21 MHz
apart. Thus,
23 and 59 MHz are both hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen. Other
hyperfine
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splitting frequencies for hydrogen include 2.71, 4.21, 7.02, 17.55, 52.63,
177.64, and 1,420.0
MHz. The hyperfine splitting frequencies are spaced even closer together than
the fine
structure splitting frequencies, so the hyperfine splitting frequencies are
smaller and lower
than the fine splitting frequencies.
Thus, the hyperfine splitting frequencies are lower than the fine splitting
frequencies.
This means that rather than being in the infrared and microwave regions, as
the fine splitting
frequencies can be, the hyperfine splitting frequencies are in the microwave
and radiowave
regions. These lower frequencies are in the MHz ( 106 hertz) and Khz ( 103
hertz) regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Several of the hyperfine splitting frequencies
for hydrogen are
shown in Figure 48. (Figure 48 shows hyperfine structure in the n = 2 to n = 3
transition of
hydrogen).
Figure 49 shows the hyperfine frequencies for CH3I. These frequencies are a
magnification of the fine structure frequencies for that molecule. Since fine
structure
frequencies for molecules are actually rotational frequencies, what is shown
is actually the
hyperfine splitting of rotational frequencies. Figure 49 shows the hyperfine
splitting of just
the J = 1 -~ 2 rotational transition. The splitting between the two tallest
curves is less than
100 MHz.
Figure 50 shows another example of the molecule C1CN. This set of hyperfine
frequencies is from the J = 1 --> 2 transition of the ground vibrational state
for C1CN. Notice
that the hyperfine frequencies are separated by just a few megahertz, (MHz)
and in a few
places by less than even one megahertz.
The energy-level diagram and spectrum of the J ='/2 ~ 3/2 rotational
transition for
NO is shown if Figure 51.
In Figure 52, the hyperfine splitting frequencies for NH3 are shown. Notice
that the
frequencies are spaced so close together that the scale at the bottom is in
kilohertz (Kc/sec).
The hyperfine features of the lines were obtained using a beam spectrometer.
Just as with fine splitting frequencies, the hyperfine splitting frequencies
are
heterodynes of atomic and molecular frequencies. Accordingly, if an atom or
molecule is
stimulated with a frequency equal to a hyperfine splitting frequency (a
heterodyned
difference between hyperfine frequencies), the present invention teaches that
the energy will
equal to a hyperfine splitting frequency will resonate with the hyperfine
frequencies
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indirectly through heterodynes. The related rotational, vibrational, and/or
electronic energy
levels will, in turn, be stimulated. This is an important discovery. It allows
one to use more
radio and microwave frequencies to selectively stimulate and target specific
reaction system
components (e.g., atomic hydrogen intermediates can be stimulated with, for
example, (2.55,
23.68 59.2 and/or 1,420 MHz).
Hyperfine frequencies, like fine frequencies, also contain features such as
doublets.
Specifically, in a region where one would expect to find only a single
hyperfine frequency
curve, there are two curves instead. Typically, one on either side of the
location where a
single hyperfine frequency was expected. Hyperfine doubling is shown in
Figures 53 and 54.
This hyperfine spectrum is also from NH3. Figure 53 corresponds to the J = 3
rotational level
and Figure 54 corresponds to the J = 4 rotational level. The doubling can be
seen most easily
in the J = 3 curves (i.e., Figure 53). There are two sets of short curves, a
tall one, and then
two more short sets. Each of the short sets of curves is generally located
where one would
expect to find just one curve. There are two curves instead, one on either
side of the main
curve location. Each set of curves is a hyperfine doublet.
There are different notations to indicate the source of the doubling such as l-
type
doubling, K doubling, and A doubling, etc., and they all have their own
constants or intervals.
Without going into the detailed theory behind the formation of various types
of doublets, the
interval between any two hyperfine multiplet curves is also a heterodyne, and
thus all of these
doubling constants represent frequency heterodynes. Accordingly, those
frequency
heterodynes (i.e., hyperfine constants) can also be used as spectral energy
catalysts according
to the present invention.
Specifically, a frequency in an atom or molecule can be stimulated directly or
indirectly. If the goal was to stimulate the 2,466 THz frequency of hydrogen
for some
reason, then, for example, an ultraviolet laser could irradiate the hydrogen
with 2,466 THz
electromagnetic radiation. This would stimulate the atom directly. However, if
such a laser
was unavailable, then hydrogen's fine structure splitting frequency of 10.87
GHz could be
achieved with microwave equipment. The gigahertz frequency would heterodyne
(i.e., add or
subtract) with the two closely spaced fine structure curves at 2,466, and
stimulate the 2,466
THz frequency band. This would stimulate the atom indirectly.
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Still further, the atom could be stimulated by using the hyperfine splitting
frequency
for hydrogen at 23.68 MHz as produced by radiowave equipment. The 23.68 MHz
frequency
would heterodyne (i.e., add or subtract) with the two closely spaced hyperfine
frequency
curves at 2,466, and stimulate the fine structure curves at the 2,466 THz.
Stimulation of the
fine structure curves would in turn lead to stimulation of the 2,466 THz
electronic frequency
for the hydrogen atom.
Still further, additional hyperfine splitting frequencies for hydrogen in the
radiowave
and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum could also be used to
stimulate the
atom. For example, a radio wave pattern with 2.7 MHz, 4.2 MHz, 7 MHz, 18 MHz,
23 MHz,
52 MHz, and 59 MHz could be used. This would stimulate several different
hyperfine
frequencies of hydrogen, and it would stimulate them essentially all at the
same time. This
would cause stimulation of the fine structure frequencies, which in turn would
stimulate the
electronic frequencies in the hydrogen atom.
Still further, depending on available equipment andfor design, andfor
processing
constraints, some delivery mode variations can also be used. For example, one
of the lower
frequencies could be a carrier frequency for the upper frequencies. A
continuous frequency
of 52 MHz could be varied in amplitude at a rate of 2.7 MHz. Or, a 59 MHz
frequency could
be pulsed at a rate of 4.2 MHz. There are various ways in which these
frequencies can be
combined and/or delivered, including different wave shapes durations,
intensity shapes, duty
cycles, etc. Depending on which of the hyperfine splitting frequencies are
stimulated, the
evolution of, for example, various and specific transients may be precisely
tailored and
controlled, allowing precise control over reaction systems using the fine
and/or hyperfine
splitting frequencies.
Accordingly, a major point of the present invention is once it is understood
the energy
transfers when frequencies match, then determining which frequencies are
available for
matching is the next step. This invention discloses precisely how to achieve
that goal.
Interactions between equipment limitations, processing constraints, etc., can
decide which
frequencies are best suited for a particular purpose. Thus, both direct
resonance and indirect
resonance are suitable approaches for the use of spectral energy catalysts.
ELECTRIC FIELDS
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Another means for modifying the spectral pattern of substances, is to expose a
substance to an electric field. Specifically, in the presence of an electric
field, spectral
frequency lines of atoms and molecules can be split, shifted, broadened, or
changed in
intensity. The effect of an electric field on spectral lines is known as the
"Stark Effect", in
honor of its' discoverer, J. Stark. In 1913, Stark discovered that the Balmer
series of
hydrogen (i.e., curve II of Figures 9a and 9b) was split into several
different components,
while Stark was using a high electric field in the presence of a hydrogen
flame. In the
intervening years, Stark's original observation has evolved into a separate
branch of
spectroscopy, namely the study of the structure of atoms and molecules by
measuring the
changes in their respective spectral lines caused by an electric field.
The electric field effects have some similarities to fine and hyperfine
splitting
frequencies. Specifically, as previously discussed herein, fme structure and
hyperfine
structure frequencies, along with their low frequency splitting or coupling
constants, were
caused by interactions inside the atom or molecule, between the electric field
of the electron
and the magnetic field of the electron or nucleus. Electric field effects are
similar, except that
instead of the electric field coming from inside the atom, the electric field
is applied from
outside the atom. The Stark effect is primarily the interaction of an external
electric field,
from outside the atom or molecule, with the electric and magnetic fields
already established
within the atom or molecule.
When examining electric field effects on atoms, molecules, ions and/or
components
thereof, the nature of the electric field should also be considered (e.g.,
such as whether the
electric field is static or dynamic). A static electric field may be produced
by a direct current.
A dynamic electric field is time varying, and may be produced by an
alternating current. If
the electric field is from an alternating current, then the frequency of the
alternating current
compared to the frequencies of the , for instance atom or molecule, should
also be considered.
In atoms, an external electric field disturbs the charge distribution of the
atom's
electrons. This disturbance of the electron's own electric field induces a
dipole moment in it
(i.e., slightly lopsided charge distribution). This lopsided electron dipole
moment then
interacts with the external electric field. In other words, the external
electric field first
induces a dipole moment in the electron field, and then interacts with the
dipole. The end
result is that the atomic frequencies become split into several different
frequencies. The
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amount the frequencies are split apart depends on the strength of the electric
field. In other
words, the stronger the electric field, the farther apart the splitting.
If the splitting varies directly with the electric field strength, then it is
called first
order splitting (i.e., w = AF where w is the splitting frequency, A is a
constant and F is the
electric field strength. When the splitting varies with the square of the
field strength, it is
called a second order or quadriatic effect (i.e., Ov = BF2). One or both
effects may be seen in
various forms of matter. For example, the hydrogen atom exhibits first order
Stark effects at
low electric field strengths, and second order effects at high field
strengths. Other electric
field effects which vary with the cube or the fourth power, etc., of the
electric field strength
are less studied, but produce splitting frequencies nonetheless. A second
order electric field
effect for potassium is shown in Figures 55 and 56. Figure 55 shows the
schematic
dependence of the 4s and Sp energy levels on the electric field. Figure 56
shows a plot of the
deviation from zero-field positions of the Sp2 P1/2.3/2 <-- 4s2 S1/2
transition wavenumbers
against the square of the electric field. Note that the frequency splitting or
separation of the
frequencies (i.e., deviation from zero-field wavenumber) varies with the
square of the electric
field strength (v/cm)Z.
The mechanism for the Stark effect in molecules is simpler than the effect is
in atoms.
Most molecules already have an electric dipole moment (i.e., a slightly uneven
charge
distribution). The external electric field simply interacts with the electric
dipole moment
already inside the molecule. The type of interaction, a first or a second
order Stark effect, is
different for differently shaped molecules. For example, most symmetric top
molecules have
first-order Stark effects. Asymmetric rotors typically have second-order Stark
effects. Thus,
in molecules, as in atoms, the splitting or separation of the frequencies due
to the external
electric field, is proportional either to the electric field strength itself,
or to the square of the
electric field strength.
An example of this is shown in Figure 57, which diagrams how frequency
components of the J = 0 -~ 1 rotational transition for the molecule CH3C1
respond to an
external electric field. When the electric field is very small (e.g., less
than 10 E2 esu2/cm2),
the primary effect is shifting of the three rotational frequencies to higher
frequencies. As the
field strength is increased (e.g., between 10 and 20 E2 esu2/cm2), the three
rotational
frequencies split into five different frequencies. With continued increases in
the electric field
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strength, the now five frequencies continue to shift to even higher
frequencies. Some of the
intervals or differences between the five frequencies remain the same
regardless of the
electric field strength, while other intervals become progressively larger and
higher. Thus, a
heterodyned frequency might stimulate splitting frequencies at one electric
field strength, but
not at another.
Another molecular example is shown in Figure 58. (This is a diagram of the
Stark
Effect in the same OCS molecule shown in Figure 44 for the J = 1 --> 2). The
J= 1 ~ 2
rotational transition frequency is shown centered at zero on the horizontal
frequency axis in
Figure 58. That frequency centered at zero is a single frequency when there is
no external
electric field. When an electric field is added, however, the single
rotational frequency splits
into two. The stronger the electric field is, the wider the splitting is
between the two
frequencies. One of the new frequencies shifts up higher and higher, while the
other
frequency shifts lower and lower. Because the difference between the two
frequencies
changes when the electric field strength changes, a heterodyned splitting
frequency might
stimulate the rotational level at one electric field strength, but not at
another. An electric field
can effect the spectral frequencies of reaction participants, and thus impact
the spectral
chemistry of a reaction.
Broadening and shifting of spectral lines also occurs with the intermolecular
Stark
effect. The intermolecular Stark effect is produced when the electric field
from surrounding
atoms, ions, or molecules, affects the spectral emissions of the species under
study. In other
words, the external electric field comes from other atoms and molecules rather
than from a
DC or AC current. The other atoms and molecules are in constant motion, and
thus their
electric fields are inhomogeneous in space and time. Instead of a frequency
being split into
several easily seen narrow frequencies, the original frequency simply becomes
much wider,
encompassing most, if not all, of what would have been the split frequencies,
(i.e., it is
broadened). Solvents, support materials, poisons, promoters, etc., are
co+mposed of atoms
and molecules and components thereof. It is now understood that many of their
effects are the
result of the intermolecular Stark effect.
The above examples demonstrate how an electric field splits, shifts, and
broadens
spectral frequencies for matter. However, intensities of the lines can also be
affected. Some
of these variations in intensity are shown in Figures 59a and 59b. Figure 59a
shows patterns
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of Stark components for transitions in the rotation of an asymmetric top
molecule for the J =
4 -~ 5 transition; whereas Figure 59b corresponds to J = 4 -~ 4. The intensity
variations
depend on rotational transitions, molecular structure, etc., and the electric
field strength.
An interesting Stark effect is shown in a structure such as a molecule, which
has
hyperfine (rotational) frequencies. The general rule for the creation of
hyperfine frequencies
is that the hyperfine frequencies result from an interaction between electrons
and the nucleus.
This interaction can be affected by an external electric field. If the applied
external electric
field is weak, then the Stark energy is much less than the energy of the
hyperfine energy (i.e.,
rotational energy). The hyperfine lines are split into various new lines, and
the separation
(i.e., splitting) between the lines is very small (i.e., at radio frequencies
and extra low
frequencies).
If the external electric field is very strong, then the Stark energy is much
larger than
the hyperfine energy, and the molecule is tossed, sometimes violently, back
and forth by the
electric field. In this case, the hyperfine structure is radically changed. It
is almost as though
there no longer is any hyperfine structure. The Stark splitting is
substantially the same as that
which would have been observed if there were no hyperfine frequencies, and the
hyperfine
frequencies simply act as a small perturbation to the Stark splitting
frequencies.
If the external electric field is intermediate in strength, then the Stark and
hyperfine '
energies are substantially equivalent. In this case, the calculations become
very complex.
Generally, the Stark splitting is close to the same frequencies as the
hyperfine splitting, but
the relative intensities of the various components can vary rapidly with
slight changes in the
strength of the external electric field. Thus, at one electric field strength
one splitting
frequency may predominate, while at an electric field strength just 1% higher,
a totally
different Stark frequency could predominate in intensity.
All of the preceding discussion on the Stark effect has concentrated on the
effects due
to a static electric field, such as one would find with a direct current. The
Stark effects of a
dynamic, or time-varying electric field produced by an alternating current,
are quite
interesting and can be quite different. Just which of those affects appear,
depends on the
frequency of the electric field (i.e., alternating current) compared to the
frequency of the
matter in question. If the electric field is varying very slowly, such as with
60 Hz wall outlet
electricity, then the normal or static type of electric field effect occurs.
As the electric field
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varies from zero to maximum field strength, the matter frequencies vary from
their unsplit
frequencies to their maximally split frequencies at the rate of the changing
electric field.
Thus, the electric field frequency modulates the frequency of the splitting
phenomena.
However, as the electrical frequency increases, the first frequency
measurement it will
begin to overtake is the line width (see Figure 16 for a diagram of line
width). The line width
of a curve is its' distance across, and the measurement is actually a very
tiny heterodyne
frequency measurement from one side of the curve to the other side. Line width
frequencies
are typically around 100 KHz at room temperature. In practical terms, line
width represents a
relaxation time for molecules, where the relaxation time is the time required
for any transient
phenomena to disappear. So, if the electrical frequency is significantly
smaller than the line
width frequency, the molecule has plenty of time to adjust to the slowly
changing electric
field, and the normal or static-type Stark effects occur.
If the electrical frequency is slightly less than the line width frequency,
the molecule
changes its' frequencies substantially in rhythm with the frequency of the
electric field (i.e., it
entrains to the frequency of the electric field). This is shown in Figure 60
which shows the
Stark effect for OCS on the J = 1 -a 2 transition with applied electric fields
at various
frequencies. The letter "a" corresponds to the Stark effect with a static DC
electric field; "b"
corresponds to a broadening and blurring of the Stark frequencies with a 1 KHz
electric field;
and "c" corresponds to a normal Stark effect with an electric field of 1,200
KHz.. As the
electric field frequency approaches the KHz line width range, the Stark curves
vary their
frequencies with the electric field frequency and become broadened and
somewhat blurred.
When the electric field frequency moves up and beyond the line width range to
about 1,200
KHz, the normal Stark type curves again become crisp and distinguishable. In
many
respects, the molecule cannot keep up with the rapid electrical field
variation and simply
averages the Stark effect. In all three cases, the cyclic splitting of the
Stark frequencies is
modulated with the electrical field frequency, or its' first harmonic (i.e.,
2X the electrical
field frequency).
The next frequency measurement that an ever-increasing electrical frequency
will
overtake in a molecule is the transitional frequency between two rotational
levels (i.e.,
hyperfine frequencies). As the electric field frequency approaches a
transitional frequency
between two levels, the radiation of the transitional frequency in the
molecule will induce
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transitions back and forth between the levels. The molecule oscillates back
and forth
between both levels, at the frequency of the electric field. When the electric
field and
transition level frequencies are substantially the same (i.e., in resonance),
the molecule will
be oscillating back and forth in both levels, and the spectral lines for both
levels will appear
simultaneously and at approximately the same intensity. Normally, only one
frequency level
is seen at a time, but a resonant electric field causes the molecule to be at
both levels at
essentially the same time, and so both transitional frequencies appear in its'
spectrum.
Moreover, for sufficiently large electric fields (e.g., those used to generate
plasmas)
additional transition level frequencies can occur at regular spacings
substantially equal to the
electric field frequency. Also, splitting of the transition level frequencies
can occur, at
frequencies of the electric field frequency divided by odd numbers (e.g.,
electric field
frequency "fE" divided by 3, or 5, or 7, i.e., fE/3 or fE/5, etc.).
All the varied effects of electric fields cause new frequencies, new splitting
frequencies and new energy level states.
Further, when the electric field frequency equals a transition level frequency
of for
instance, an atom or molecule, a second component with an opposite frequency
charge and
equal intensity can develop. This is negative Stark effect, with the two
components of equal
and opposite frequency charges destructively canceling each other. In spectral
chemistry
terms this amounts to a negative catalyst or poison in the reaction system, if
the transition
thus targeted was important to the reaction pathway. Thus, electric fields
cause the Stark
effect, which is the splitting, shifting, broadening, or changing intensity
and changing
transitional states of spectral frequencies for matter, (e.g., atoms and
molecules). As with
many of the other mechanisms that have been discussed herein, changes in the
spectral
frequencies of reaction systems can affect the reaction rate and/or reaction
pathway. For
example, consider a reaction system like the following:
C C
A + $ ~ I"termediates -'
where A&B are reactants, C is a physical catalyst, I stands for the
intermediates, and D&F
are the products.
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Assume arguendo that the reaction normally progresses at only. a moderate
rate, by
virtue of the fact that the physical catalyst produces several frequencies
that are merely close
to harmonics of the intermediates. Further assume that when an electric field
is added, the
catalyst frequencies are shifted so that several of the catalyst frequencies
are now exact or
substantially exact harmonics of the intermediates. This will result in, for
example, the
reaction being catalyzed at a faster rate. Thus, the Stark effect can be used
to obtain a more
efficient energy transfer through the matching of frequencies (i.e., when
frequencies match,
energies transfer).
If a reaction normally progresses at only a moderate rate, many "solutions"
have
included subjecting the reaction system to extremely high pressures. The high
pressures
result in a broadening of the spectral patterns, which improves the transfer
of energy through
a matching of resonant frequencies. By understanding the underlying catalyst
mechanisms of
action, high pressure systems could be replaced with, for example, a simple
electric field
which produces broadening. Not only would this be less costly to an industrial
manufacturer,
it could be much safer for manufacturing due to the removal of, for example,
high pressure
equipment.
Some reactants when mixed together do not react very quickly at all, but when
an
electric field is added they react rather rapidly. The prior art may refer to
such a reaction as
being catalyzed by an electric field and the equations would look like this:
-1-h E
A+B>D+FandA+B->D+F
where E is the electric field. In this case, rather than applying a catalyst
"C" (as discussed
previously) to obtain the products "D + F", an electric field "E" can be
applied. In this
instance, the electric field works by changing the spectral frequencies (or
spectral pattern) of
one or more components in the reaction system so that the frequencies come
into resonance,
and the reaction can proceed along a desired reaction pathway (i.e., when
frequencies match,
energy is transferred). Understood in this way, the electric field becomes
just another tool to
change spectral frequencies of atoms and molecules, and thereby affect
reaction rates in
spectral chemistry.
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Reaction pathways are also important. In the absence of an electrical field, a
reaction
pathway will progress to one set of products:
C C
A + B -~ I"termediates -'-> D + F
However, if an electrical field is added, at some particular strength of the
field, the spectral
frequencies may change so much, that a different intermediate is energized and
the reaction
proceeds down a different reaction pathway:
C C
A + $ ~ Intermediates -' G + H
E E
This is similar to the concept discussed earlier herein, regarding the
formation of different
products depending on temperature. The changes in temperature caused changes
in spectral
frequencies, and hence different reaction pathways were favored at different
temperatures.
Likewise, electric fields cause changes in spectral frequencies, and hence
different reactions
pathways are favored by different electric fields. By tailoring an electric
field to a particular
reaction system, one can control not only the rate of the reaction but also
the reaction
products produced.
The ability to tailor reactions, with or without a physical catalyst, by
varying the
strength of an electric field should be useful in many manufacturing
situations. For example,
it might be more cost effective to build only one physical set-up for a
reaction system and to
use one or more electric fields to change the reaction dynamics and products,
depending on
which product is desired. This would save the expense of having a separate
physical set-up
for production of each group of products.
Besides varying the strength of an electric field, the frequency of an
electric field can
also be varied. Assuming that a reaction will proceed at a much faster rate if
a particular
strength static electric field (i.e., direct current) is added as in the
following:
C C
A + $ ~ Intermediates -~ D + F
E E
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But further assume, that because of reactor design and location, it is much
easier to deliver a
time-varying electric field with alternating current. A very low frequency
field, such as with
a 60 Hz wall outlet, can produce the normal or static-type Stark effect. Thus,
the reactor
could be adapted to the 60 Hz electric field and enjoy the same increase in
reaction rate that
would occur with the static electric field.
If a certain physical catalyst produces spectral frequencies that are close to
intermediate frequencies, but are not exact, it is possible that the activity
of the physical
catalyst in the past may have been improved by using higher temperatures. As
disclosed
earlier herein, the higher temperatures actually broadened the physical
catalyst's spectral
pattern to cause the frequency of the physical catalyst to be at least a
partial match for at least
one of the intermediates. What is significant here is that high temperature
boilers can be
minimized, or eliminated altogether, and in their stead a moderate frequency
electric field
which, for example, broadened the spectral frequencies, could be used. For
example, a
frequency of around 100 Khz, equivalent to the typical line width frequencies
at room
temperature, could broaden substantially all of the spectral curves and cause
the physical
catalyst's spectral curves to match those of, for example, required
intermediates. Thus, the
electric field could cause the matter to behave as though the temperature had
been raised,
even though it had not been. (Similarly, any spectral manipulation, (e.g.,
electric fields
acoustics, heterodynes, etc., that cause changes in the spectral line width,
may cause a
material to behave as though its temperature had been changed).
The cyclic splitting of the Stark frequencies can be modulated with the
electrical field
frequency or its' first harmonic (i.e., first-order Stark effects are
modulated with the electrical
field frequency, while second-order Stark effects are modulated by two times
the electrical
field, frequency). Assume that a metallic platinum catalyst is used in a
hydrogen reaction and
it is desired to stimulate the 2.7 MHz hyperfine frequency of the hydrogen
atoms. Earlier
herein it was disclosed that electromagnetic radiation could be used to
deliver the 2.7 MHz
frequency. However, use of an alternating electric field at 2.7 MHz could be
used instead.
Since platinum is a metal and conducts electricity well, the platinum can be
considered to be
a part of the alternating current circuit. The platinum will exhibit a Stark
effect, with all the
frequencies splitting at a rate of 2.7 MHz. At sufficiently strong electric
fields, additional
transition frequencies or "sidebands" will occur at regular spacings equal to
the electric field
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frequency. There will be dozens of split frequencies in the platinum atoms
that are
heterodynes of 2.7 MHz. This massive heterodyned output may stimulate the
hydrogen
hyperfine frequency of 2.7 MHz and direct the reaction.
Another way to achieve this reaction, of course, would be to leave the
platinum out of
the reaction altogether. The 2.7 MHz field will have a resonant Stark effect
on the hydrogen,
separate and independent of the platinum catalyst. Copper is not normally
catalytic for
hydrogen, but copper could be used to construct a reaction vessel like a Stark
waveguide to
energize the hydrogen. A Stark waveguide is used to perform Stark
spectroscopy. It is
shown as Figures 61 a and 61 b. Specifically, Figure 61 a shows the
construction of the Stark
waveguide, whereas Figure 61 b shows the distribution of fields in the Stark
waveguide. The
electrical field is delivered through the conducting plate. A reaction vessel
could be made for
the flow-through of gases and use an economical metal such as copper for the
conducting
plate. When the 2.7 MHz alternating current is delivered through the
electrical connection to
the copper conductor plate, the copper spectral frequencies, none of which are
particularly
1 S resonant with hydrogen, will exhibit a Stark effect with normal-type
splitting. The Stark
frequencies will be split at a rate of 2.7 MHz. At a sufficiently strong
electric field strength,
additional sidebands will appear in the copper, with regular spacings (i.e.,
heterodynes) of 2.7
MHz even though none of the actual copper frequencies matches the hydrogen
frequencies,
the Stark splitting or heterodynes will match the hydrogen frequency. Dozens
of the copper
split frequencies may resonate indirectly with the hydrogen hyperfine
frequency and direct
the reaction (i.e., when frequencies match, energies transfer).
With sophisticated equipment and a good understanding of a particular system,
Stark
resonance can be used with a transition level frequency. For example, assume
that to achieve
a particular reaction pathway, a molecule needs to be stimulated with a
transition level
frequency of 500 MHz. By delivering the S00 MHz electrical field to the
molecule, this
resonant electrical field may cause the molecule to oscillate back and forth
between the two
levels at the rate of 500 MHz. This electrically creates the conditions for
light amplification
(i.e., laser via stimulation of multiple upper energy levels) and any added
electromagnetic
radiation at this frequency will be amplified by the molecule. In this manner,
an electrical
field may substitute for the laser effects of physical catalysts.
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In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanisms of chemical
reactions, electric fields can be used as yet another tool to catalyze and
modify those
chemical reactions andlor reaction pathways by modifying the spectral
characteristics, for
example, at least one participant and/or one or more components in the
reaction system.
Thus, another tool for mimicking catalyst mechanisms of reactions can be
utilized.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
In spectral terms, magnetic fields behave similar to electric fields in their
effect.
Specifically, the spectral frequency lines, for instance of atoms and
molecules, can be split
and shifted by a magnetic field. In this case, the external magnetic field
from outside the
atom or molecule, interacts with the electric and magnetic fields already
inside the atom or
molecule.
This action of an external magnetic field on spectral lines is called the
"Zeeman
Effect", in honor of its' discoverer, Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman. In 1896,
Zeeman
discovered that the yellow flame spectroscopy "D" lines of sodium were
broadened when the
flame was held between strong magnetic poles. It was later discovered that the
apparent
broadening of the sodium spectral lines was actually due to their splitting
and shifting.
Zeeman's original observation has evolved into a separate branch of
spectroscopy, relating to
the study of atoms and molecules by measuring the changes in their spectral
lines caused by a
magnetic field. This in turn has evolved into the nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy
and magnetic resonance imaging used in medicine, as well as the laser magnetic
resonance
and electron spin resonance spectroscopy used in physics and chemistry.
The Zeeman effect for the famous "D" lines of sodium is shown in Figures 62a
and
62b. Figure 62a shows the Zeeman effect for sodium "D" lines; whereas Figure
62b shows
the energy level diagram for the transitions in the Zeeman effect for the
sodium "D" lines.
The "D" lines are traditionally said to result from transition between the
3pzP and 3s2S
electron orbitals. As is shown, each of the single spectral frequencies is
split into two or
more slightly different frequencies, which center around the original unsplit
frequency.
In the Zeeman effect, the amount that the spectral frequencies are split apart
depends
on the strength of the applied magnetic field. Figure 63 shows Zeeman
splitting effects for
the oxygen atom as a function of magnetic field. When there is no magnetic
field, there are
two single frequencies at zero and 4.8. When the magnetic field is at low
strength (e.g., 0.2
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Tesla) there is just slight splitting and shifting of the original two
frequencies. However, as
the magnetic field is increased, the frequencies are split and shifted farther
and farther apart.
The degree of splitting and shifting in the Zeeman effect, depending on
magnetic field
strength, is shown in Figure 64 for the 3P state of silicon.
As with the Stark effect generated from an external electric field, the Zeeman
effect,
generated from an external magnetic field, is slightly different depending on
whether an atom
or molecule is subjected to the magnetic field. The Zeeman effect on atoms can
be divided
into three different magnetic field strengths: weak; moderate; and strong. If
the magnetic
field strength is weak, the amount that the spectral frequencies will be
shifted and split apart
will be very small. The shifting away from the original spectral frequency
will still stimulate
the shifted frequencies. This is because they will be so close to the original
spectral
frequency that they will still be well within its resonance curve. As for the
splitting, it is so
small, that it is even less than the hyperfine splitting that normally occurs.
This means that in
a weak magnetic field, there will be only very slight splitting of spectral
frequencies,
translating into very low splitting frequencies in the lower regions of the
radio spectrum and
down into the very low frequency region. For example, the Zeeman splitting
frequency for
the hydrogen atom, which is caused by the earth's magnetic field, is around 30
KHz. Larger
atoms have even lower frequencies in the lower kilohertz and even hertz
regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Without a magnetic field, an atom can be stimulated by using direct resonance
with a
spectral frequency or by using its fine or hyperfine splitting frequencies in
the infrared
through microwave, or microwave through radio regions, respectively. By merely
adding a
very weak magnetic field, the atom can be stimulated with an even lower radio
or very low
frequency matching the Zeeman splitting frequency. Thus, by simply using a
weak magnetic
field, a spectral catalyst range can be extended even lower into the radio
frequency range.
The weak magnetic field from the Earth causes Zeeman splitting in atoms in the
hertz and
kilohertz ranges. This means that all atoms, including those in biological
organisms, are
sensitive to hertz and kilohertz EM frequencies, by virtue of being subjected
to the Earth's
magnetic field.
At the other end of magnetic field strength, is the very strong magnetic
field. In this
case, the splitting apart and shifting of the spectral frequencies will be
very wide. With this
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wide shifting of frequencies, the difference between the split frequencies
will be much larger
than the difference between the hyperfine splitting frequencies. This
translates to Zeeman
effect splitting frequencies at higher frequencies than the hyperfine
splitting frequencies. This
splitting occurs somewhere around the microwave region. Although the addition
of a strong
magnetic field does not extend the reach in the electromagnetic spectrum at
one extreme or
the other, as a weak magnetic field does, it still does provide an option of
several more
potential spectral catalyst frequencies that can be used in the microwave
region.
The moderate magnetic field strength case is more complicated. The shifting
and
splitting caused by the Zeeman effect from a moderate magnetic field will be
approximately
equal to the hyperfine splitting. Although not widely discussed in the prior
art, it is possible
to apply a moderate magnetic field to an atom, to produce Zeeman splitting
which is
substantially equivalent to its' hyperfine splitting. This presents
interesting possibilities.
Methods for guiding atoms in chemical reactions were disclosed earlier herein
by stimulating
atoms with hyperfine splitting frequencies. The Zeeman effect provides a way
to achieve
similar effects without introducing any spectral frequencies at all. For
example, by
introducing a moderate magnetic field, resonance may be set-up within the atom
itself, that
stimulates and/or energizes andlor stabilizes the atom.
The moderate magnetic field causes low frequency Zeeman splitting, that
matches and
hence energizes the low frequency hyperfine splitting frequency in the atom.
However, the
low hyperfine splitting frequencies actually correspond to the heterodyned
difference
between two vibrational or fine structure frequencies. When the hyperfine
splitting frequency
is stimulated, the two electronic frequencies will eventually be stimulated.
This in turn
causes the atom to be, for example, stimulated. Thus, the Zeeman effect
permits a spectral
energy catalyst stimulation of an atom by exposing that atom to a precise
strength of a
magnetic field, and the use of spectral EM frequencies is not required (i.e.,
so long as
frequencies match, energies will transfer). The possibilities are quite
interesting because an
inert reaction system may suddenly spring to life upon the application of the
proper moderate
strength magnetic field.
There is also a difference between the "normal" Zeeman effect and the
"anomalous"
Zeeman effect. With the "normal" Zeeman effect, a spectral frequency is split
by a magnetic
field into three frequencies, with expected even spacing between them (see
Figure 65a which
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shows the "normal" Zeeman effects and Figure 65b which shows the "anomalous"
Zeeman
effects). One of the new split frequencies is above the original frequency,
and the other new
split frequency is below the original frequency. Both new frequencies are
split the same
distance away from the original frequency. Thus, the difference between the
upper and
original and the lower and original frequencies is about the same. This means
that in terms of
heterodyne differences, there are at most, two new heterodyned differences
with the normal
Zeeman effect. The first heterodyne or splitting difference is'the difference
between one of
the new split frequencies and the original frequency. The other splitting
difference is
between the upper and lower new split frequencies. It is, of course, twice the
frequency
difference between either of the upper or lower frequencies and the original
frequency.
In many instances the Zeeman splitting produced by a magnetic field results in
more
than three frequencies, or in splitting that is spaced differently than
expected. This is called
the "anomalous" Zeeman effect (see Figures 65 and 66; wherein Figure 66 shows
an
anamolous Zeeman effect for zinc 3p --> 3s.
If there are still just three frequencies, and the Zeeman effect is anomalous
because
the spacing is different than expected, the situation is similar to the normal
effect. However,
there are at most, two new splitting frequencies that can be used. If,
however, the effect is
anomalous because more than three frequencies are produced, then there will be
a much more
richly varied situation. Assume an easy case where there are four Zeeman
splitting
frequencies (see Figures 67a and Figure 67b). Figure 67a shows four Zeeman
splitting
frequencies and Figure 67b shows four new heterodyned differences.
In this example of anomalous Zeeman splitting, there are a total of four
frequencies,
where once existed only one frequency. For simplicity's sake, the new Zeeman
frequencies
will be labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4. Frequencies 3 and 4 are also split apart by
the same difference
"w". Thus, "w" is a heterodyned splitting frequency. Frequencies 2 and 3 are
also split apart
by a different amount "x". So far there are two heterodyned splitting
frequencies, as in the
normal Zeeman effect.
However, frequencies 1 and 3 are split apart by a third amount "y", where "y"
is the
sum of "w" and "x". And, frequencies 2 and 4 are also split apart by the same
third amount
"y". Finally, frequencies l and 4 are split even farther apart by an amount
"z". Once again,
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"z" is a summation amount from adding "w + x + w". Thus, the result is four
heterodyned
frequencies: w, x, y, and z in the anomalous Zeeman effect.
If there were six frequencies present from the anomalous Zeeman effect, there
would
be even more heterodyned differences. Thus, the anomalous Zeeman effect
results in far
greater flexibility in the choice of frequencies when compared to the normal
Zeeman effect.
In the normal Zeeman effect the original frequency is split into three evenly
spaced
frequencies, with a total of just two heterodyned frequencies. In the
anomalous Zeeman
effect the original frequency is split into four or more unevenly spaced
frequencies, with at
least four or more heterodyned frequencies.
Now for a discussion of the Zeeman effect in molecules. Molecules come in
three
basic varieties: ferromagnetic; paramagnetic; and diamagnetic. Ferromagnetic
molecules are
typical magnets. The materials typically hold a strong magnetic field and are
composed of
magnetic elements such as iron, cobalt, and nickel.
Paramagnetic molecules hold only a weak magnetic field. If a paramagnetic
material
is put into an external magnetic field, the magnetic moment of the molecules
of the material
are lined up in the same direction as the external magnetic field. Now, the
magnetic moment
of the molecules is the direction in which the molecules own magnetic field is
weighted.
Specifically, the magnetic moment of a molecule will tip to whichever side of
the molecule is
more heavily weighted in terms of its own magnetic field. Thus, paramagnetic
molecules
will typically tip in the same direction as an externally applied magnetic
field. Because
paramagnetic materials line up with an external magnetic field, they are also
weakly attracted
to sources of magnetic fields.
Common paramagnetic elements include oxygen, aluminum, sodium, magnesium,
calcium and potassium. Stable molecules such as oxygen (02) and nitric oxide
(NO) are also
paramagnetic. Molecular oxygen makes up approximately 20% of our planet's
atmosphere.
Both molecules play important roles in biologic organisms. In addition,
unstable molecules,
more commonly known as free radicals, chemical reaction intermediates or
plasmas, are also
paramagnetic. Paramagnetic ions include hydrogen, manganese, chromium, iron,
cobalt, and
nickel. Many paramagnetic substances occur in biological organisms. For
instance the blood
flowing in our veins is an ionic solution containing red blood cells. The red
blood cells
contain hemoglobin, which in turn contains ionized iron. The hemoglobin, and
hence the red
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blood cells, are paramagnetic. In addition, hydrogen ions can be found in a
multitude of
organic compounds and reactions. For instance, the hydrochloric acid in a
stomach contains
hydrogen ions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy system of nearly all
biological
organisms, requires hydrogen and manganese ions to function properly. Thus,
the very
existence of life itself depends on paramagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic molecules, on the other hand, are repelled by a magnetic field,
and line
up what little magnetic moments they have away from the direction of an
external magnetic
field. Diamagnetic substances do not typically hold a magnetic field. Examples
of
diamagnetic elements include hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus,
chlorine, copper, zinc, silver, gold, lead, and mercury. Diamagnetic molecules
include water,
most gases, organic compounds, and salts such as sodium chloride. Salts are
really just
crystals of diamagnetic ions. Diamagnetic ions include lithium, sodium,
potassium,
rubidium, caesium, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, ammonium, and
sulphate. Ionic
crystals usually dissolve easily in water, and as such the ionic water
solution is also
diamagnetic. Biologic organisms are filled with diamagnetic materials, because
they are
carbon-based life forms. In addition, the blood flowing in our veins is an
ionic solution
containing blood cells. The ionic solution (i.e., blood plasma) is made of
water molecules,
sodium ions, potassium ions, chlorine ions, and organic protein compounds.
Hence, our blood
is a diamagnetic solution carrying paramagnetic blood cells.
With regard to the Zeeman effect, first consider the case of paramagnetic
molecules.
As with atoms, the effects can be categorized on the basis of magnetic field
strength. If the
external magnetic field applied to a paramagnetic molecule is weak, the Zeeman
effect will
produce splitting into equally spaced levels. In most cases, the amount of
splitting will be
directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, a "first-order"
effect. A general
rule of thumb is that a field of one (1 ) oersted (i.e., slightly larger than
the earth's magnetic
field) will produce Zeeman splittings of approximately 1.4 MHz in paramagnetic
molecules.
Weaker magnetic fields will produce narrower splittings, at lower frequencies.
Stronger
magnetic fields will produce wider splittings, at higher frequencies. In these
first order
Zeeman effects, there is usually only splitting, with no shifting of the
original or center
frequency, as was present with Zeeman effects on atoms.
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In many paramagnetic molecules there are also second-order effects where the
Zeeman splitting is proportional to the square of the magnetic field strength.
In these cases,
the splitting is much smaller and of much lower frequencies. In addition to
splitting, the
original or center frequencies shift as they do in atoms, proportional to the
magnetic field
strength.
Sometimes the direction of the magnetic field in relation to the orientation
of the
molecule makes a difference. For instance, ~ frequencies are associated with a
magnetic field
parallel to an exciting electromagnetic field, while a frequencies are found
when it is
perpendicular. Both ~ and a frequencies are present with a circularly
polarized
electromagnetic field. Typical Zeeman splitting patterns for a paramagnetic
molecule in two
different transitions are shown in Figure 68a and 68b. The ~c frequencies are
seen when OM
= 0, and are above the long horizontal line. The a frequencies are seen when
OM = ~ 1, and
are below the long horizontal line. If a paramagnetic molecule was placed in a
weak
magnetic field, circularly polarized light would excite both sets of
frequencies in the
molecule. Thus, it is possible to control which set of frequencies are excited
in a molecule by
controlling its orientation with respect to the magnetic field.
When the magnetic field strength is intermediate, the interaction between the
paramagnetic molecule's magnetic moments and the externally applied magnetic
field
produces Zeeman effects equivalent to other frequencies and energies in the
molecule. For
instance, the Zeeman spitting may be near a rotational frequency and disturb
the end-over-
end rotational motion of the molecule. The Zeeman splitting and energy may be
particular or
large enough to uncouple the molecule's spin from its molecular axis.
If the magnetic field is very strong; the nuclear magnetic moment spin will
uncouple
from the molecular angular momentum. In this case, the Zeeman effects
overwhelm the
hyperfine structure, and are of much higher energies at much higher
frequencies. In spectra
of molecules exposed to strong magnetic fields, hyperfine splitting appears as
a small
perturbation of the Zeeman splitting.
Next, consider Zeeman effects in so called "ordinary molecules" or diamagnetic
molecules. Most molecules are of the diamagnetic variety, hence the
designation "ordinary".
This includes, of course, most organic molecules found in biologic organisms.
Diamagnetic
molecules have rotational magnetic moments from rotation of the positively
charged nucleus,
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and this magnetic moment of the nucleus is only about 1/1000 of that from the
paramagnetic
molecules. This means that the energy from Zeeman splitting in diamagnetic
molecules is
much smaller than the energy from Zeeman splitting in paramagnetic molecules.
The
equation for the Zeeman energy in diamagnetic molecules is:
Hz = -(giJ - g~i)~~Ho
where J is the molecular rotational angular momentum, I is the nuclear-spin
angular
momentum, g~ is the rotational g factor, and g1 is the nuclear-spin g factor.
This Zeeman
energy is much less, and of much lower frequency, than the paramagnetic Zeeman
energy. In
terms of frequency, it falls in the hertz and kilohertz regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Finally, consider the implications of Zeeman splitting for catalyst and
chemical
reactions and for spectral chemistry. A weak magnetic field will produce hertz
and kilohertz
Zeeman splitting in atoms and second order effects in paramagnetic molecules.
Virtually any
kind of magnetic field will produce hertz and kilohertz Zeeman splitting in
diamagnetic
molecules. All these atoms and molecules will then become sensitive to radio
and very low
frequency (VLF) electromagnetic waves. The atoms and molecules will absorb the
radio or
VLF energy and become stimulated to a greater or lesser degree. This could be
used to add
spectral energy to, for instance, a particular molecule or intermediate in a
chemical reaction
system. For instance, for hydrogen and oxygen gases turning into water over a
platinum
catalyst, the hydrogen atom radical is important for maintaining the reaction.
In the earth's
weak magnetic field, Zeeman splitting for hydrogen is around 30 KHz. Thus, the
hydrogen
atoms in the reaction system, could be energized by applying to them a Zeeman
splitting
frequency for hydrogen (e.g., 30 KHz). Energizing the hydrogen atoms in the
reaction
system will duplicate the mechanisms of action of platinum, and catalyze the
reaction. If the
reaction was moved into outer space, away from the earth's weak magnetic
field, hydrogen
would no longer have a 30 KHz Zeeman splitting frequency, and the 30 KHz would
no
longer as effectively catalyze the reaction.
The vast majority of materials on this planet, by virtue of existing within
the earth's
weak magnetic field, will exhibit Zeeman splitting in the hertz and kilohertz
regions. This
applies to biologics and organics as well as inorganic or inanimate materials.
Humans are
composed of a wide variety of atoms, diamagnetic molecules, and second order
effect
paramagnetic molecules. These atoms and molecules all exist in the earth's
weak magnetic
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field. These atoms and molecules in humans all have Zeeman splitting in the
hertz and
kilohertz regions, because they are in the earth's magnetic field. Biochemical
and
biocatalytic process in humans are thus sensitive to hertz and kilohertz
electromagnetic
radiation, by virtue of the fact that they are in the earth's weak magnetic
field. As long as
humans continue to exist on this planet, they will be subject to spectral
energy catalyst effects
from hertz and kilohertz EM waves because of the Zeeman effect from the
planet's magnetic
field. This has significant implications for low frequency communications, as
well as
chemical and biochemical reactions, diagnostics, and treatment of diseases.
A strong magnetic field will produce splitting greater than the hyperfine
frequencies,
in the microwave and infrared regions of the EM spectrum in atoms and
paramagnetic
molecules. In the hydrogen/oxygen reaction, a strong field could be added to
the reaction
system and transmit MHz and/or GHz frequencies into the reaction to energize
the hydroxy
radical and hydrogen reaction intermediates. If physical platinum was used to
catalyze the
reaction, the application of a particular magnetic field strength could result
in both the
platinum and the reaction intermediate spectra having frequencies that were
split and shifted
in such a way that even more frequencies matched than without the magnetic
field. In this
way, Zeeman splitting can be used to improve the effectiveness of a physical
catalyst, by
copying its mechanism of action (i.e., more frequencies could be caused to
match and thus
more energy could transfer).
A moderate magnetic field will produce Zeeman splitting in atoms and
paramagnetic
molecules at frequencies on par with the hyperfine and rotational splitting
frequencies. This
means that a reaction system can be energized without even adding
electromagnetic energy.
Similarly, by placing the reaction system in a moderate magnetic field that
produces Zeeman
splitting equal to the hyperfine or rotational splitting, increased reaction
would occur. For
instance, by using a magnetic field that causes hyperfine or rotational
splitting in hydrogen
and oxygen gas, that matches the Zeeman splitting in hydrogen atom or hydroxy
radicals, the
hydrogen or hydroxy intermediate would be energized and would proceed through
the
reaction cascade to produce water. By using the appropriately tuned moderate
magnetic
field, the magnetic field could be used to turn the reactants into catalysts
for their own
reaction, without the addition of physical catalyst platinum or the spectral
catalyst of
platinum. Although the magnetic field would simply be copying the mechanism of
action of
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platinum, the reaction would have the appearance of being catalyzed solely by
an applied
magnetic field.
Finally, consider the direction of the magnetic field in relation to the
orientation of the
molecule. When the magnetic field is parallel to an exciting electromagnetic
field, ~
frequencies are produced. When the magnetic field is perpendicular to an
exciting
electromagnetic field, a frequencies are found. Assume that there is an
industrial chemical
reaction system that uses the same (or similar) starting reactants, but the
goal is to be able to
produce different products at will. By using magnetic fields combined with
spectral energy
or physical catalysts, the reaction can be guided to one set of products or
another. For the
first set of products, the electromagnetic excitation is oriented parallel to
the magnetic field,
producing one set of ~ frequencies, which leads to a first set of products. To
achieve a
different product, the direction of the magnetic field is changed so that it
is perpendicular to
the exciting electromagnetic field. This produces a different set of a
frequencies, and a
different reaction pathway is energized, thus producing a different set of
products. Thus,
according to the present invention, magnetic field effects, Zeeman splitting,
splitting and
spectral energy catalysts can be used to fine tune the specificity of many
reaction systems.
In summary, by understanding the underlying spectral mechanism to chemical
reactions, magnetic fields can be used as yet another tool to catalyze and
modify those
chemical reactions by modifying the spectral characteristics of at least one
participant and/or
at least one component in the reaction system.
REACTOR VESSEL SIZE, SHAPE AND COMPOSITION
An important consideration in the use of spectral chemistry is the reactor
vessel size,
shape and composition. The reactor vessel size and shape can affect the
vessel's NOF to
various wave energies (e.g., EM, acoustic, electrical current, etc). This in
turn may affect
reaction system dynamics. For instance, a particularly small bench-top reactor
vessel may
have an EM NOF of 1,420 MHz related to a 25 cm dimension. When a reaction with
an
atomic hydrogen intermediate is performed in the small bench-top reactor, the
reaction
proceeds quickly, due in part to the fact that the reactor vessel and the
hydrogen hyperfine
splitting frequencies match (1,420 MHz). This allows the reactor vessel and
hydrogen
intermediates to resonate, thus transferring energy to the intermediate and
promoting the
reaction pathway.
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When the reaction is scaled up for large industrial production, the reaction
would
occur in a much larger reactor vessel with an EM NOF of, for example, 100 MHz.
Because
the reactor vessel is no longer resonating with the hydrogen intermediate, the
reaction
proceeds at a slower rate. This deficiency in the larger reactor vessel can be
compensated for,
by, for example, supplementing the reaction with 1,420 MHz radiation, thereby
restoring the
faster reaction rate.
. Likewise, reactor vessel composition may play a similar role in reaction
system
dynamics. For example, a stainless steel bench-top reactor vessel may produce
vibrational
frequencies which resonate with vibrational frequencies of a reactant, thus,
for example,
promoting disassociation of a reactant into reactive intermediates. When the
reaction is
scaled up for industrial production, it may be placed into, for example, a
ceramic-lined metal
reactor vessel. The new reactor vessel typically will not produce the reactant
vibrational
frequency, and the reaction will proceed at a slower rate. Once again, this
deficiency in the
new reactor vessel, caused by its different composition, can be compensated
for either by
1 S returning the reaction to a stainless steel vessel, or by supplementing,
for example, the
vibrational frequency of the reactant into the ceramic-lined vessel
It should now be understood that all the aspects of spectral chemistry
previously
discussed (resonance, targeting, poisons, promoters, supporters, electric and
magnetic-fields
both endogenous and exogenous to reaction system components, etc.) apply to
the reactor
vessel, as well as to, for example, any participant placed inside it. The
reactor vessel may be
comprised of matter (e.g., stainless steel, plastic, glass, and/or ceramic,
etc.) or it may be
comprised of a field or energy (e.g., magnetic bottle, light trapping, etc.) A
reactor vessel, by
possessing inherent properties such as frequencies, waves, and/or fields, may
interact with
other components in the reaction system and/or at least one participant.
Likewise, holding
vessels, conduits, etc., some of which may interact with the reaction system,
but in which the
reaction does not actually take place, may interact with one or more
components in the
reaction system and may potentially affect them, either positively or
negatively.
Accordingly, when reference is made to the reactor vessel, it should be
understood that all
portions associated therewith may also be involved in desirable reactions.
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10
20
EXAMPLES
The invention will be more clearly perceived and better understood from the
following specific examples.
EXAMPLE 1
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REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A SPECTRAL CATALYST
IN A GAS PHASE REACTION
2H2 + 02 »» platinum catalyst »» 2H20
Water can be produced by the method of exposing H2 and 02 to a physical
platinum
(Pt) catalyst but there is always the possibility of producing a potentially
dangerous explosive
risk. This experiment replaced the physical platinum catalyst with a spectral
catalyst
comprising the spectral pattern of the physical platinum catalyst, which
resonates with and
transfers energy to the hydrogen and hydroxy intermediates.
To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form water utilizing a
spectral catalyst, electrolysis of water was performed to provide
stoichiometric amounts of
oxygen and hydrogen starting gases. A triple neck flask was fitted with two
(2) rubber
stoppers on the outside necks, each fitted with platinum electrodes encased in
glass for a four
(4) inch length. The flask was filled with distilled water and a pinch of salt
so that only the
glass-encased portion of the electrode was exposed to air, and the unencased
portion of the
1 S electrode was completely under water. The central neck was connected via a
rubber stopper
to vacuum tubing, which led to a Drierite column to remove any water from the
produced
gases.
After vacuum removal of all gases in the system (to about 700 mm Hg),
electrolysis
was conducted using a 12 V power source attached to the two electrodes.
Electrolysis was
commenced with the subsequent production of hydrogen and oxygen gases in
stoichiometric
amounts. The gases passed through the Drierite column, through vacuum tubing
connected
to positive and negative pressure gauges and into a sealed 1,000 ml, round
quartz flask. A
strip of filter paper, which contained dried cobalt, had been placed in the
bottom of the sealed
flask. Initially the cobalt paper was blue, indicating the absence of water in
the flask. A
similar cobalt test strip exposed to the ambient air was also blue.
The traditional physical platinum catalyst was replaced by spectral catalyst
platinum
emissions from a Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode Platinum Lamp which was
positioned
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approximately 2 cm from the flask. This allowed the oxygen and hydrogen gases
in the
round quartz flask to be irradiated with emissions from the spectral catalyst.
A Cathodeon
Hollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Pt lamp at 80% maximum
current
(12 mAmps). The reaction flask was cooled using dry ice in a Styrofoam
container
positioned directly beneath the round quartz flask, offsetting any effects of
heat from the Pt
lamp. The Pt lamp was turned on and within two days of irradiation, a
noticeable pink color
was evident on the cobalt paper strip indicating the presence of water in the
round quartz
flask. The cobalt test strip exposed to ambient air in the lab remained blue.
Over the next
four to five days, the pink colored area on the cobalt strip became brighter
and larger. Upon
discontinuation of the Pt emission, H20 diffused out of the cobalt strip and
was taken up by
the Drierite column . Over the next four to five days, the pink coloration of
the cobalt strip in
the quartz flask faded. The cobalt strip exposed to the ambient air remained
blue.
EXAMPLE 2
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A SPECTRL CATALYST
IN A LIQUID PHASE REACTION
H202 »» platinum catalyst »» H20 + Oa
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is an extremely slow reaction in the
absence
of catalysts. Accordingly, an experiment was performed which showed that the
physical
catalyst, finely divided platinum, could be replaced with the spectral
catalyst having the
spectral pattern of platinum. Hydrogen peroxide, 3%, filled two (2) nippled
quartz tubes.
(the nippled quartz tubes consisted of a lower portion 17 mm internal diameter
and 150 mm
in length, narrowing over a 10 mm length to an upper capillary portion being
2.0 mm internal
diameter and 140 mm in length and were made from PhotoVac Laser quartz
tubing). Both
quartz tubes were inverted in SO ml beaker reservoirs filled with (3%)
hydrogen peroxide to
40 ml and were shielded from incident light (cardboard cylinders covered with
aluminum
foil). One of the light shielded tubes was used as a control. The other
shielded tube was
exposed to a Fisher Scientific Hollow Cathode Lamp for platinum (Pt) using a
Cathodeon
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Hollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610, at 80% maximum current (12 mA). The
experiment
was performed several times with an exposure time ranging from 24-96 hours.
The shielded
tubes were monitored for increases in temperature (there was none) to assure
that any
reaction was not due to thermal effects. In a typical experiment the nippled
tubes were
prepared with hydrogen peroxide (3%) as described above herein. Both tubes
were shielded
from light, and the Pt tube was exposed to platinum spectral emissions, as
described above,
for about 24 hours. Gas production in the control tube A measured about four
(4) mm in
length in the capillary (i.e., about12.5 mm3), wwhile gas in the Pt (tube B)
measured about 50
mm (i.e., about 157 mm3). The platinum spectral catalyst thus increased the
reaction rate
about 12.5 times.
The tubes were then switched and tube A was exposed to the platinum spectral
catalyst, for about 24 hours, while tube B served as the control. Gas
production in the control
(tube B) measured about 2 mm in length in the capillary (i.e., about 6 mm3)
while gas in the
Pt tube (tube A) measured about 36 mm (i.e., about 113 mm3), yielding about a
19 fold
difference in reaction rate.
As a negative control, to confirm that any lamp would not cause the same
result, the
experiment was repeated with a sodium lamp at 6 mA (80% of the maximum
current). Na in
a traditional reaction would be a reactant with water releasing hydrogen gas,
not a catalyst of
hydrogen peroxide breakdown. The control tube measured gas to be about 4 mm in
length
(i.e., about 12 mm3) in the capillary portion, while the Na tube gas measured
to be about
1 mm in length (i.e., about 3 mm3). This indicated that while spectral
emissions can
substitute for catalysts, they cannot yet substitute for reactants. Also, it
indicated that the
simple effect of using a hollow cathode tube emitting heat and energy into the
hydrogen
peroxide was not the cause of the gas bubble formation, but instead, the
spectral pattern of Pt
replacing the physical catalyst caused the reaction.
EXAMPLE 3
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REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A SPECTRAL CATALYST
IN A SOLID PHASE REACTION
It is well known that certain micro-organisms have a toxic reaction to silver
Ag. It is
now understood through this invention, that high intensity spectral
frequencies produced in
S the silver electronic spectrum match with ultraviolet frequencies that are
lethal to bacteria (by
creation of free radicals and by causing bacterial DNA damage) but are
harmless to
mammalian cells. Thus, it was theorized that the known medicinal and anti-
microbial uses of
silver are due to a spectral catalyst effect. In this regard, an experiment
was conducted which
showed that the spectral catalyst emitting the spectrum of silver demonstrated
a toxic or
inhibitory effect on micro-organisms.
Bacterial cultures were placed onto standard growth medium in two petri dishes
(one
control and one Ag) using standard plating techniques covering the entire
dish. Each dish
was placed at the bottom of a light shielding cylindrical chamber. A light
shielding foil-
covered, cardboard disc with a patterned slit was placed over each culture
plate. A Fisher
Scientific Hollow Cathode Lamp for Silver (Ag) was inserted through the top of
the Ag
exposure chamber so that only the spectral emission pattern from the silver
lamp was
irradiating the bacteria on the Ag culture plate (i.e., through the patterned
slit). A Cathodeon
Hollow Cathode Lamp Supply C610 was used to power the Ag lamp at 80% maximum
current (3.6 mA). The control plate was not exposed to emissions of an Ag
lamp, and
ambient light was blocked. Both control and Ag plates were maintained at room
temperature
(e.g., about 70 - 74°F) during the silver spectral emission exposure
time, which ranged from
about 12-24 hours in the various experiments. Afterwards, both plates were
incubated using
standard techniques (37°C, aerobic Forma Scientific Model 3157, Water-
Jacketed Incubator)
for about 24 hours.
The following bacteria (obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory at People's
Hospital in Mansfield, Ohio, US), were studied for effects of the Ag lamp
spectral emissions:
1. E coli;
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2. Strep. pneumoniae;
3. Staph. aureus; and
4. Salmonella typhi.
This group included both Gram+ and Gram' species, as well as cocci and rods.
Results were as follows:
1. Controls - all .controls showed full growth covering the culture plates;
2. The Ag plates
- areas unexposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed full growth.
- areas exposed to the Ag spectral emission pattern showed:
a. E. coli - no growth;
b. Strep. pneumoniae - no growth; and
c. Staph. aureus - no growth;
d. Salmonella tyhli - inhibited growth.
EXAMPLE 4
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A SPECTRAL CATALYST, AND
COMPARING RESULTS TO PHYSICAL CATALYST RESULTS IN A BIOLOGIC
PREPARATION
To further demonstrate that certain susceptible organisms which have a toxic
reaction
to silver would have a similar reaction to the spectral catalyst emitting the
spectrum of silver,
cultures were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) which
included
Escherichia coli #25922, and Klebsiella pneumonia, subsp Pneumoniae, # 13883.
Control
and Ag plate cultures were performed as described above. After incubation,
plates were
examined using a binocular microscope. The E. coli exhibited moderate
resistance to the
bactericidal effects of the spectral silver emission, while the Klebsiella
exhibited moderate
sensitivity. All controls exhibited full growth.
Accordingly, an experiment was performed which demonstrated a similar result
using
the physical silver catalyst as was obtained with the Ag spectral catalyst.
Sterile test discs
were soaked in an 80 ppm, colloidal silver solution. The same two (2)
organisms were again
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plated, as described above. Colloidal silver test discs were placed on each Ag
plate, while the
control plates had none. The plates were incubated as described above and
examined under
the binocular microscope. The collodial silver E. coli exhibited moderate
resistance to the
bactericidal effects of the physical colloidal silver, while the Klebsiella
again exhibited
moderate sensitivity. All controls exhibited full growth.
EXAMPLE 5
AUGMENTING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A SPECTRAL CATALYST
To demonstrate that oxygen and hydrogen can combine to form water utilizing a
spectral catalyst to augment a physical catalyst, electrolysis of water was
performed to
provide the necessary oxygen and hydrogen starting gases, as in Example 1.
Two quartz flasks (A and B) were connected separately after the Drierite
column,
each with its own set of vacuum and pressure gauges. Platinum powder (31 mg)
was placed
in each flask. The flasks were filled with electrolytically produced
stoichiometric amounts of
H2 and 02 to 120 mm Hg. The flasks were separated by a stopcock from the
electrolysis
system and from each other. The pressure in each flask was recorded over time
as the
reaction proceeded over the physical platinum catalyst. The reaction combines
three (3)
moles of gases, (i.e., two (2) moles H2 and one (1) mole 02), to produce two
(2) moles H20.
This decrease in molarity, and hence progress of the reaction, can be
monitored by a decrease
in pressure "P" which is proportional, via the ideal gas law, (PV = nRT), to
molarity "n". A
baseline rate of reaction was thus obtained. Additionally, the test was
repeated filling each
flask with H2 and 02 to 220 mm Hg. Catalysis of the reaction by only the
physical catalyst
yielded two baseline reaction curves which were in good agreement between
flasks A and B,
and for both the 110 mm and 220 mm Hg tests.
Next, the traditional physical platinum catalyst in flask A was augmented with
spectral catalyst platinum emissions from two (2) parallel Fisher Scientific
Hollow Cathode
Platinum Lamps, as in Example 1, which were positioned approximately two (2)
cm from
flask A. The test was repeated as described above, separating the two (2)
flasks from each
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other and monitoring the rate of the reaction via the pressure decrease in
each. Flask B
served as a control flask. In flask A, the oxygen and hydrogen gases, as well
as the physical
platinum catalyst, were directly irradiated with emissions from the Pt lamp
spectral catalyst.
Rate of reaction in the control flask B, was in good agreement with previous
baseline
rates. Rate of reaction in flask "A", wherein physical platinum catalyst was
augmented with
the platinum spectral pattern, exhibited an overall mean increase of 60%, with
a maximal
increase of 70% over the baseline and flask B.
EXAMPLE 6
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A FINE STRUCTURE HETERODYNED
FREQUENCY
AND
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A FINE STRUCTURE FREQUENCY
THE ALPHA ROTATION-VIBRATION CONSTANT
Water was electrolyzed to produce ,stoichiometric amounts of hydrogen and
oxygen
gases as described above herein. Additionally, a dry ice cooled stainless
steel coil was placed
immediately after the Drierite column. After vacuum removal of all gases in
the system,
electrolysis was accomplished using a 12 V power source attached to the two
electrodes,
resulting in a production of hydrogen and oxygen gases. After passing through
the Drierite
column, the hydrogen and oxygen gases passed through vacuum tubing connected
to positive
and negative pressure gauges, through the dry ice cooled stainless steel coil
and then to a
1,000 ml round, quartz flask. A strip of filter paper impregnated with dry
(blue) cobalt was in
the bottom of the quartz flask, as an indicator of the presence or absence of
water.
The entire system was vacuum evacuated to a pressure of about 700 mm Hg below
atmospheric pressure. Electrolysis was performed, producing hydrogen and
oxygen gases in
stoichiometric amounts, to result in a pressure of about 220 mm Hg above
atmospheric
pressure. The center of the quartz flask, now containing hydrogen and oxygen
gases was
irradiated for approximately 12 hours with continuous microwave
electromagnetic radiation
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emitted from a Hewlett Packard microwave spectroscopy system which included an
HP
83350B Sweep Oscillator, an HP 8510B Network Analyzer, and an HP 8513A
Reflection
Transmission Test Set. The frequency used was 21.4 GHz, which corresponds to a
fine
splitting constant, the alpha rotation-vibration constant, of the hydroxy
intermediate, and is
thus a harmonic resonant heterodyne for the hydroxy radical. The cobalt strip
changed
strongly in color to pink which indicated the presence of water in the quartz
flask, whose
creation was catalyzed by a harmonic resonant heterodyne frequency for the
hydroxy radical.
EXAMPLE 7
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A HYPERFINE SPLITTING FREQUENCY
, An experimental dark room was prepared, in which there is no ambient light,
and
which can be totally darkened. A shielded, ground room (Ace Shielded Room,
Ace,
Philadelphia, PA, US, Model A6H3-16; 8 feet wide, 17 feet long, and 8 feet
high copper
mesh) was installed inside the dark room.
Hydrogen peroxide (3%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which were then
inverted in beakers filled with (3%) hydrogen peroxide, as described in
greater detail herein.
The tubes were allowed to rest for about 18 hours in the dark room, covered
with non-
metallic light blocking hoods (so that the room could be entered without
exposing the tubes
to light). Baseline measurements of gases in the nippled tubes were then
performed.
Three nippled RF tubes were placed on a wooden grid table in the shielded
room, in
the center of grids 4, 54, and 127; corresponding to distances of about 107
cm, 187 cm, and
312 cm respectively, from a frequency-emitting antenna (copper tubing 15 mm
diameter,
4.7 m octagonal circumference, with the center frequency at approximately 6.5
MHz. A 25
watt, 17 MHz signal was sent to the antenna. This frequency corresponds to a
hyperfine
splitting frequency of the hydrogen atom, which is a transient in the
dissociation of hydrogen
peroxide. The antenna was pulsed continuously by a BK Precision RF Signal
Generator
Model 2005A, and amplified by an Amplifier Research amplifier, Model 25A-100.
A control
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tube was placed on a wooden cart immediately adjacent to the shielded room, in
the dark
room. All tubes were covered with non-metallic light blocking hoods.
After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogen peroxide
and
resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes was measured. The RF tube
closest to the
antenna produced 11 mm length gas in the capillary (34 mm3), the tube
intermediate to the
antenna produced a 5 mm length ( 10 mm3) gas, and the RF tube farthest from
the antenna
produced no gas. The control tube produced 1 mm gas. Thus, it can be concluded
that the RF
hyperfine splitting frequency for hydrogen increased the reaction rate
approximately five (5)
to ten (10) times.
EXAMPLE 8
REPLACING A PHYSICAL CATALYST WITH A MAGNETIC FIELD
Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in nippled quartz tubes, which were then
inverted in beakers filled with (15%) hydrogen peroxide, as described above.
The tubes were
allowed to rest for four (4) hours on a wooden table in a shielded cage, in a
dark room.
Baseline measurements of gases in the nippled tubes were then performed.
Remaining in the shielded cage, in the dark room, two (2) control tubes were
left on a
wooden table as controls. Two (2) magnetic field tubes were placed on the
center platform of
an ETS Helmholtz single axis coil, Model 6402, 1.06 gauss/Ampere, pulsed at
about 83 Hz
by a BK Precision 20 MHz Sweep/Function Generator, Model 4040. The voltage
output of
the function generator was adjusted to produce an alternating magnetic field
of about 19.5
milliGauss on the center platform of the Helmholtz Coil, as measured by a
Holaday Model
HI-3627, three (3) axis ELF magnetic field meter and probe. Hydrogen atoms,
which are a
transient in the dissociation of hydrogen peroxide, exhibit nuclear magnetic
resonance via
Zeeman splitting at this applied frequency and applied magnetic field
strength. Thus,
frequency of the alternating magnetic field was resonant with the hydrogen
transients.
After about 18 hours, gas production from dissociation of hydrogen peroxide
and
resultant oxygen formation in the nippled tubes was measured. The control
tubes averaged
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about 180 mm gas formation (540mm3) while the tubes exposed to the alternating
magnetic
field produced about 810 mm gas (2,430 mm3), resulting in an increase in the
reaction rate of
approximately four (4) times.
EXAMPLE 9
NEGATIVELY CATALYZING A REACTION WITH AN ELECTRIC FIELD
Hydrogen peroxide (15%) was placed in four (4) nippled quartz tubes which were
inverted in hydrogen peroxide (15%) filled beakers, as described in greater
detail above
herein. The tubes were placed on a wooden table, in a shielded room, in a dark
room. After
four (4) hours, baseline measurements were taken of the gas in the capillary
portion of the
tubes.
An Amplifier Research self contained electromagnetic mode cell ("TEM" ) Model
TC 151 OA had been placed in the shielded, darkened room. A sine wave signal
of about 133
MHz was provided to the TEM cell by a BK Precision RF Signal Generator, Model
2005A,
and an Amplifier Research amplifier, Model 25A100. Output levels on the signal
generator
and amplifier wave adjusted to produce an electric field (E-field) of about
five (5) Vlm in the
center of the TEM cell, as measured with a Holaday Industries electric field
probe, Model. HI-
4433GRE, placed in the center of the lower chamber.
Two of the hydrogen peroxide filled tubes were placed in the center of the
upper
chamber of the TEM cell, about 35 cm from the wall of the shielded room. The
other two (2)
tubes served as controls and were placed on a wooden table, also about 35 cm
from the same
wall of the shielded, dark room, and removed from the immediate vicinity of
the TEM cell,
so that there was no ambient electric field, as confirmed by E-field probe
measurements.
The 133 MHz alternating sine wave signal delivered to the TEM cell was well
above
the typical line width frequency at room temperature (e.g., about 100 KHz) and
was theorized
to be resonant with an n=20 Rydberg state of the hydrogen atom as derived from
0E=cE3~a
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where E is the change in energy in cm'1, c is 7.51 +/- 0.02 for the hydrogen
state n = 20 and E
is the electric field intensity in (Kv/cm)2.
After about five (5) hours of exposure to the electric field, the mean gas
production in
the tubes subjected to the E-field was about 17.5 mm, while mean gas
production in the
control tubes was about 58 mm.
While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory or explanation, it is
believed
that the alternating electric field resonated with an upper energy level in
the hydrogen atoms,
producing a negative Stark effect, and thereby negatively catalyzing the
reaction.
EXAMPLE 10
AUGMENTATION OF A PHYSICAL CATALYST BY IRRADIATING
REACTANTS/TRANSIENTS WITH A SPECTRAL CATALYST
Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced in stoichiometric amounts by
electrolysis,
as previously described in greater detail above herein. A stainless steel coil
cooled in dry ice
was placed immediately after the Drierite column. Positive and negative
pressure gauges
were connected after the coil, and then a 1,000 ml round quartz flask was
sequentially
connected with a second set of pressure gauges.
At the beginning of each experimental run, the entire system was vacuum
evacuated
to a pressure of about minus 650 mm Hg. The system was sealed for about 15
minutes to
confirm the maintenance of the generated vacuum and integrity of the
connections.
Electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases was performed, as
described
previously.
Initially, about 10 mg of finely divided platinum was placed into the round
quartz
flask. Reactant gases were allowed to react over the platinum and the reaction
rate was
monitored by increasing the rate of pressure drop over time, as previously
described. The
starting pressure was approximately in the mid-90's mm Hg positive pressure,
and the ending
pressure was approximately in the low 30's over the amount of time that
measurements were
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taken. Two (2) control runs were performed, with reaction rates of about 0.47
mm Hg/minute
and about 0.48 mm Hg/minute.
For the third run, a single platinum lamp was applied, as previously
described, except
that the operating current was reduced to about eight (8) mA and the lamp was
positioned
S through the center of the flask to irradiate only the reactant/transient
gases, and not the
physical platinum catalyst. The reaction rate was determined, as described
above, and was
found to be about 0.63 mm Hg/minute, an increase of 34%.
EXAMPLE 11
APPARENT POISONING OF A REACTION BY THE SPECTRAL PATTERN
OF A PHYSICAL POISON
The conversion of hydrogen and oxygen gases to water, over a stepped platinum
physical catalyst, is known to be poisoned by gold. Addition of gold to this
platinum
catalyzed reaction reduces reaction rates by about 95%. The gold blocks only
about one sixth
of the platinum binding sites, which according to prior art, would need to be
blocked to
poison the physical catalyst to this degree. Thus, it was theorized that a
spectral interaction
of the physical gold with the physical platinum and/or reaction system could
also be
responsible for the poisoning effects of gold on the reaction. It was further
theorized that
addition of the gold spectral pattern to the reaction catalyzed by physical
platinum could also
poison the reaction.
Hydrogen and oxygen gases were produced by electrolysis, as described above in
greater detail. Finely directed platinum, about 15 mg, was added to the round
quartz flask.
Starting pressures were about in the 90's mm Hg positive pressure, and ending
pressures
were about in the 20's mm Hg over the amount of time that measurements were
taken.
Reaction rates were determined as previously described. The first control run
revealed a
reaction rate of about 0.81 mm Hglminute.
In the second run, a Fisher Hollow Cathode Gold lamp was applied, as
previously
described , at an operating frequency of about eight (8) mA, (80% maximum
current),
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through about the center of the round flask. The reaction rate increased to
about 0.87 mm
Hg/minute.
A third run was then performed on the same reaction flask and physical
platinum that
had been in the flask exposed to the gold spectral pattern. The reaction rate
decreased to
about 0.75 mm Hg/minute.
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